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Highlights Aim to identify independent risk factors for postoperative delirium after pituitary adenoma surgery. Select matched subjects by Propensity Score Matching to reduce potential biases caused by variables. Enhance preoperative communication to minimize the occurrence of delirium, for patients at high risk of postoperative delirium. Minimize surgery duration and general anesthesia, optimize perioperative sedation regimen. Reducing unnecessary or excessive protective physical restraints. Abstract Objectives The primary aim of this study is to explore the factors associated with delirium incidence in postoperative patients who have undergone endoscopic transsphenoidal approach surgery for pituitary adenoma. Methods The study population included patients admitted to Tianjin Huanhu Hospital's Skull Base Endoscopy Center from January to December 2022, selected through a retrospective cohort study design. The presence of perioperative delirium was evaluated using the 4 'A's Test (4AT) scale, and the final diagnosis of delirium was determined by clinicians. Statistical analysis included Propensity Score Matching (PSM), χ2 Test, and Binary Logistic Regression. Results A total of 213 patients were included in this study, and the incidence of delirium was found to be 29.58 % (63/213). Among them, 126 patients were selected using PSM (delirium:non-delirium = 1:1), ensuring age, gender, and pathology were matched. According to the results of univariate analysis conducted on multiple variables, The binary logistic regression indicated that a history of alcoholism (OR = 6.89, [1.60–29.68], P = 0.010), preoperative optic nerve compression symptoms (OR = 4.30, [1.46–12.65], P = 0.008), operation time ≥3 h (OR = 5.50, [2.01–15.06], P = 0.001), benzodiazepines for sedation (OR = 3.94, [1.40–11.13], P = 0.010), sleep disorder (OR = 3.86, [1.40–10.66], P = 0.009), and physical restraint (OR = 4.53, [1.64–12.53], P = 0.004) as independent risk factors for postoperative delirium following pituitary adenoma surgery. Conclusions For pituitary adenoma patients with a history of alcoholism and presenting symptoms of optic nerve compression, as well as an operation time ≥3 h, enhancing communication between healthcare providers and patients, improving perioperative sleep quality, and reducing physical restraint may help decrease the incidence of postoperative delirium. Introduction In clinical practice, patients admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) during the postoperative period after endoscopic transsphenoidal tumorectomy of pituitary adenoma often experience episodes of delirium. According to a recent retrospective analysis conducted at a single center, the incidence of postoperative delirium among these patients was found to be 10.34 % (n = 360) [1]. Delirium is a common complication following neurosurgery, characterized by acute distraction, confusion in thinking, sleep disorders, and cognitive decline. The incidence of delirium in admitted patients after neurosurgery has been reported to be 19 %, with a range of 12 % to 26 % depending on clinical features and the methods used for delirium assessment [2], [3], [4]. The incidence of postoperative delirium varied across different types of neurosurgical diseases, as reported in a meta-analysis [2]. Specifically, the incidences were 8.0 % for patients with neurological tumors, 20 % for those undergoing functional neurosurgery, 24.0 % for microvascular decompression patients, 19.0 % for traumatic brain injury patients, 42.0 % for neurovascular patients, and 17.0 % for the mixed population undergoing neurosurgery procedures. Furthermore, the incidence rates of delirium in intensive care units (ICUs), general wards, or both combined were found to be 24.0 %, 17 %, and 18 %, respectively. The aforementioned issue not only leads to prolonged hospital stays and increased healthcare costs, but also exerts a significant impact on patient consciousness and cognitive function. Therefore, early and accurate identification of delirium in post-neurosurgical patients is crucial. However, due to frequent co-occurrence with primary brain injury, related complications can also lead to cognitive impairment or even decreased levels of consciousness, posing challenges for timely and precise identification of delirium. Currently, the primary focus lies in the prevention of delirium within the neurosurgical ICU setting. Early identification and comprehensive pre-surgical assessment are positively significant measures for preventing postoperative delirium occurrence [5], [6]. In this study, a retrospective cohort design was employed to collect pertinent data and statistically analyze the incidence of delirium, as well as its associated influencing factors, among patients admitted to the neurosurgical ICU for pituitary adenoma treatment. And now it is reported as follows. Section snippets Patient selection A retrospective cohort study design was employed to select 213 pituitary adenomas admitted to the Skull Base and Endoscopy Center of Tianjin Huanhu Hospital between January 2022 and December 2022 as the subjects for investigation, with a review of their medical records. The mean age was (50.03 ± 15.72) years, ranging from 20–79 years old (Fig. 1). Informed consent was obtained from all patients or their families, ensuring compliance with the requirements stated in the Declaration of Helsinki. Inclusion criteria a. Propensity score matching The present study enrolled a total of 213 patients with pituitary tumors, among whom 63 exhibited symptoms related to delirium while the remaining 150 did not. Consequently, the incidence rate of delirium was determined to be 29.58 % in this cohort of patients admitted to the intensive care unit following pituitary tumor surgery. The univariate analysis revealed no significant differences in age (≥65y old, 23.8 % vs. 23.3 %, P = 0.940) and gender (male, 49.2 % vs. 56.7 %, P = 0.318) between the Background of perioperative delirium in transsphenoidal endoscopic pituitary adenoma surgery The pituitary gland is situated within the sella turcica and comprises two distinct components. The anterior pituitary, known as the adenohypophysis, functions as an endocrine organ responsible for secreting growth hormone, prolactin, adrenocorticotropic hormone, thyrotropin, follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone. On the other hand, the posterior pituitary, referred to as the neurohypophysis, serves as a direct extension of the hypothalamus and acts as a storage site for Conclusions To enhance the evaluation of postoperative patients at risk of delirium, it is anticipated that optimizing doctor-nurse-patient communication and minimizing unnecessary and indiscriminate protective measures will mitigate the incidence of delirium following pituitary tumor surgery. This study is a single-center prospective study conducted at our institution, which has several inherent limitations. A large-scale multicenter prospective study is anticipated to further investigate the associated Limitations There are multiple factors that influence the occurrence of delirium following neurosurgery. This retrospective study solely focused on analyzing and comparing general patient data, medical history, and potential perioperative factors contributing to delirium, without considering any other known or unknown variables in this analysis. The pituitary gland functions as a neuroendocrine organ involved in the regulation of neuroendocrine processes. Changes in hormone levels following surgery for Funding All authors affirm that this study was conducted without any fund support from external organizations. CRediT authorship contribution statement Shusheng Zhang: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. Yanan Chen: Writing – original draft, Investigation, Data curation. Xiudong Wang: Validation, Supervision, Project administration, Methodology, Conceptualization. Jun Liu: Software, Formal analysis, Data curation. Yueda Chen: Validation, Supervision, Methodology, Investigation. Guobin Zhang: Writing – review & editing, Validation, Supervision, Methodology, Conceptualization. Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. References (21) G. Sousa et al. Postoperative delirium in patients with history of alcohol abuse Rev Esp Anestesiol Reanim (2017) M. Terzaghi et al. Sleep disorders and acute nocturnal delirium in the elderly: a comorbidity not to be overlooked Eur J Intern Med (2014) S. Lee et al. Opioid and benzodiazepine use in the emergency department and the recognition of delirium within the first 24 hours of hospitalization J Psychosom Res (2022) A.J. Slooter et al. Delirium in critically ill patients Handb Clin Neurol (2017) E. Wang et al. Effect of perioperative benzodiazepine use on intraoperative awareness and postoperative delirium: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials and observational studies Br J Anaesth (2023) E. Rollo et al. Physical restraint precipitates delirium in stroke patients J Neurol Sci (2021) H. Chen et al. The incidence and predictors of postoperative delirium after brain tumor resection in adults: A cross-sectional survey World Neurosurg (2020) J. Liu et al. Identifying hormones and other perioperative risk factors for postoperative delirium after endoscope-assisted transsphenoidal pituitary adenoma resection: A retrospective, matched cohort study Brain Behav (2023) P.R. Kappen et al. Delirium in neurosurgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis Neurosurg Rev (2022) J. Wang et al. Risk factors for the incidence of delirium in cerebrovascular patients in a Neurosurgery Intensive Care Unit: A prospective study J Clin Nurs (2018) There are more references available in the full text version of this article. From https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0967586824001279

Objective Postoperative data on Cushing’s disease (CD) are equivocal in the literature. These discrepancies may be attributed to different series with different criteria for remission and variable follow-up durations. Additional data from experienced centers may address these discrepancies. In this study, we present the results obtained from 96 endoscopic transsphenoidal surgeries (ETSSs) for CD conducted in a well-experienced center. Methods Pre- and postoperative data of 96 ETSS in 87 patients with CD were included. All cases were handled by the same neurosurgical team between 2014 and 2022. We obtained data on remission status 3−6 months postoperatively (medium-term) and during the latest follow-up (long-term). Additionally, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and pathology results were obtained for each case. Results The mean follow-up duration was 39.5±3.2 months. Medium and long-term remission rates were 77% and 82%, respectively. When only first-time operations were considered, the medium- and long-term remission rates were 78% and 82%, respectively. The recurrence rate in this series was 2.5%. Patients who showed remission between 3−6 months had higher longterm remission rates than did those without initial remission. Tumors >2 cm and extended tumor invasion of the cavernous sinus (Knosp 4) were associated with lower postoperative remission rates. Conclusion Adenoma size and the presence/absence of cavernous sinus invasion on preopera-tive MRI may predict long-term postoperative remission. A tumor size of 2 cm may be a supporting criterion for predicting remission in Knosp 4 tumors. Further studies with larger patient populations are necessary to support this finding. Key Words: Complete remission · Neuroendoscopy · Pituitary-dependant Cushing syndrome · Treatment outcome. Go to : INTRODUCTION Cushing’s disease (CD) is characterized by excessive secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) by a corticotropic adenoma in the pituitary gland. In patients with CD whose hypercortisolism is inadequately corrected, morbidity and mortality can increase by up to 4.8 times due to Cushingrelated complications such as osteoporosis, hypertension, dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, and hypercoagulability [11,18]. Endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery (ETSS), the first-line treatment for CD [7], is performed to decrease complications while achieving remission and long-term disease control. Previous studies on CD have reported varying remission rates between 45% and 95% and recurrence rates ranging from 3−66% [2,4,9,16,21,30]. This wide range of differences can be primarily attributed to differences in surgical experience among centers: centers with higher surgical experience have fewer postoperative complications and higher remission rates [4,6]. However, despite initial remission, patients with CD may eventually experience recurrence. The mean recurrence rate at the 5-10-year follow-up is 23% for microadenomas and 33% for macroadenomas [19,23,30]. Since the postoperative rates in the literature are variable, additional data from experienced centers may be necessary to resolve these discrepancies. In this study, we present the medium- and long-term follow-up data from 96 operations for CD that were conducted in a center with a high level of experience for ETSS. Go to : MATERIALS AND METHODS The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki (as revised in 2013). The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Basaksehir Cam and Sakura City Hospital (No. 2022185). Informed consent was obtained from all patients. The authors are accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved. This retrospective study included pre and postoperative data of 96 ETSS performed in 87 patients with CD (Fig. 1). CD was diagnosed based on unsuppressed cortisol levels (>1.8 µg/dL) following the 1-mg dexamethasone suppression test, high levels of urinary free cortisol, or late night salivary cortisol and plasma ACTH levels >20 pg/mL [28]. Between 2014 and 2022, all surgeries were conducted by the experienced neurosurgical team (Ö.G., O.T., B.E., E.A.) responsible for endoscopic transsphenoidal procedures at the Pituitary Research Center. The surgeries were performed under perioperative glucocorticoid coverage. Fig. 1. Number of operations and patients included in the study. Size, cavernous sinus invasion, sellar and suprasellar infiltration of adenoma on preoperative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, residual tumor on postoperative MRI scans, postoperative complications, pathology results, remission and recurrence status, and additional postoperative management were evaluated in addition to patients’ demographic data. For follow-up assessments, data obtained 3−6 months postoperatively and during the latest follow-up were included. Three different classifications obtained during radiologic evaluation using MRI were used for pituitary adenomas : 1) maximum size of tumor (MST) : 0−5 mm (group 1), 6−10 mm (group 2), 11−20 mm (group 3), and >20 mm (group 4); 2) Knosp classification : for evaluation of cavernous sinus invasion [22]; and 3) modified Hardy classification : for evaluation of sellar and suprasellar infiltrations [20,39]. In cases of CD without a lesion or with a lesion <6 mm on MRI, confirmation of the central origin and lateralization was provided by inferior petrosal sinus sampling (IPSS) with corticotropin-releasing hormone stimulation [25,26,29]. Under neuronavigation guidance, pure ETSS surgical interventions were performed for all patients by a single surgical team using the Medtronic StealthStation™ S7 and S8 systems (Medtronic, Minneapolis, MN, USA) together with 4-mm 0°, 30°, and 45° rigid optical instruments and an endoscope. A nasal decongestant spray was administered 1 hour before the operation. The sphenoid ostium was detected from both nostrils, and a bi-nostril approach was used by resecting the posterior nasal septum. After sphenoidectomy, the standard sellar approach was used for lesions in the sellar region. The details of these surgical procedures are described in previous study [14]. Selective adenectomy with ETSS was performed for preoperatively localized and visible tumors, whereas hemihypophysectomy was performed for non-lesional cases. In cases with cavernous sinus-invading tumors, particularly Knops 3-4, the defect which was created by the tumor on the medial wall of anterior cavernous sinus was identified and, it was expanded for resection of the tumor tissue within the cavernous sinus. If a defect was not visible, blunt-ended hook-shaped dissectors were used to create a defect on the medial wall, allowing access for the tumor to enter the cavernous sinus. Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) and immunohistochemistry staining were performed for the specimens obtained during ETSS. Adenomas showing positive immunohistological staining for ACTH were diagnosed histologically as corticotropinomas. CD was considered to be in remission when the cases showed basal cortisol levels <5 µg/dL or suppressed cortisol levels (≤1.8 µg/dL) following the 1-mg dexamethasone suppression test, 3-6 months postoperation, and during the latest follow-up. The study protocol was approved by the ethics committee of our institution. Data were statistically analyzed using the SPSS 15.0 package (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). The chi-square test was used for categorical variables. Sample distribution was evaluated with the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Continuous independent variables with a normal distribution were compared using the Student’s t-test. Continuous variables with non-normal distributions were compared using the Mann-Whitney U test. p<0.05 was considered statistically significant. A Kaplan-Meier survival analysis was conducted to determine probability and time to recurrence in cases with initial remission. Go to : RESULTS Demographic data A total of 96 ETSS were performed for 87 patients with CD. Of the 87 patients, 68 (79%) were female, and 19 (21%) were male. The mean patient age was 42.2±12.9 years, and the mean duration of follow-up was 39.5±3.2 months. Of the 96 surgeries, 79 (82%) were performed for the first time, six (6%) were performed for residual tumors, and 11 (12%) were performed following a recurrence of the disease. Eight of the 17 patients who underwent reoperations had undergone their first operation at another center. Preoperative imaging Table 1 shows the maximum tumor size on preoperative pituitary MRI before each surgical procedure. Preoperative IPSS for lateralization was performed in 42 operations (44%), all of which were first-time cases. Knosp classification based on preoperative pituitary MRI and the modified Hardy classification is presented in Table 1. Table 1. Preoperative pituitary magnetic resonance imaging scans Number of tumors (n=96) Maximum tumor size  Group 1, 0−5 mm 41 (42.7)  Group 2, 6−10 mm 24 (25.0)  Group 3, 11−20 mm 20 (20.8)  Group 4, >20 mm 11 (11.5) Knosp classification  Grade 0 52 (54.2)  Grade 1 22 (22.9)  Grade 2 6 (6.3)  Grade 3 8 (8.3)  Grade 4 8 (8.3) Modified Hardy classification  0   A 41 (42.8)   B -   C -   D -   E -  1   A 14 (14.6)   B -   C -   D -   E 4 (4.2)  2   A 5 (5.2)   B -   C -   D -   E 5 (5.2)  3   A 1 (1.0)   B 2 (2.1)   C -   D -   E 1 (1.0)  4   A 1 (1.0)   B -   C -   D 1 (1.0)   E 3 (3.1)  NA 18 (18.8) Values are presented as number (%). Invasion : 0, sella normal; 1, sella focally expanded and tumor ≤10 mm; 2, sella enlarged and tumor ≥10 mm; 3, localized perforation of the sellar floor; 4, diffuse destruction of the sellar floor. Suprasellar extension : A, no suprasellar extension; B, anterior recesses of the third ventricle obliterated; C, floor of the third ventricle grossly displaced with parasellar extension; D, intracranial (intradural) : anterior, middle or middle fossa; E, into/beneath the cavernous sinus (extradural). NA : not available Postoperative results Remission was achieved between the 3rd and 6th months in 74 (77%) of the 96 operations, and long-term remission in 79 operations (82%). Among all 96 operations, eight (8%) concluded with a residual tumor. Regarding only first-time operations, five (6%) of the 79 concluded with a postoperative residual tumor. Of the 79 first-time operations, there were 62 cases (78%) of remission between 3 and 6 months. Two (2.5%) of these 79 operations involved recurrence during follow-up, while 60 (97%) showed sustained remission. Those with sustained remission had a median disease-free survival time of 31 months (interquartile range, 14-64) during long-term followup, two cases with recurrence had their recurrence 49 and 54 months after their operation. Survival analysis of cases with remisson and recurrence is presented in Fig. 2. CD persisted after 17 (21.5%) of the 79 first operations. Fig. 2. Survival analysis after the first operation in cases with remission at 3-6 months. Dashed line represents cases with recurrence and, straight line represents cases with sustained remission during long-term follow-up. Ten (13%) of the 79 cases underwent reoperation; two were due to recurrence, and eight due to disease persistence. In five cases (29%), the patients were initially unresponsive but showed remission later during the long-term follow-up. Remission was achieved with stereotactic radiosurgery (STRS) and medical treatment in one of these cases, with only STRS in two and only medical treatment in two cases. At the latest follow-up visit, the total number of cases showing remission after the first operation was 65 (82%). Additional details regarding the results of the first operations are provided in Fig. 3. Fig. 3. Results of the cases who had operation for the first time. Of the 18 reoperations, the results for one case were excluded since the patient was operated at another center. After the reoperation (n=17), the medium and long-term remission rates were 71% (n=12) and 77% (n=13), respectively. The 3-6-month remission rate did not differ significantly between first-time and reoperations (p=0.5). Residual tumors were present in three cases (18%) after reoperation. Of the early non-responders, one case showed remission after STRS, and none of the responders showed recurrence during long-term follow-up. Additional details regarding the results of reoperations are provided in Fig. 4. Fig. 4. Results of the reoperations in our center. Remission rates based on tumor size are presented in Table 2. The initial remission rates of the tumors in MST group 4 were significantly lower than those in the other MST groups (MST 1 vs. 4, p=0.01; MST 2 vs. 4, p=0.001; and MST 3 vs. 4, p=0.006). Comparisons of the other MST groups showed no significant differences. When adenomas were stratified using the 10-mm cut-off, the remission rates did not differ significantly (remission rate, 81% for adenomas <10 mm and 68% for adenomas ≥10 mm; p=0.2). Postoperative residual tumors were observed in five of the 11 tumors (46%) >2 cm (MST group 4) and in one tumor in each of MST groups 1-3 (2%, 4%, and 5%, respectively, p<0.001). Reoperation rate was 17% (n=7) for adenomas ≤5 mm, 18% (n=10) for adenomas ≥6 mm (p=0.9), and 27% (n=3) for adenomas >20 mm (among all grades, p=0.3). Table 2. Comparison of remission rates in preoperative pituitary magnetic resonance imaging scans 3−6-month remission Long-term remission Maximum tumor size  Group 1, 0−5 mm (n=41) 31 (75.6) 33 (80.5)  Group 2, 6−10 mm (n=24) 22 (91.7) 22 (91.7)  Group 3, 10−20 mm (n=20) 17 (85.0) 17 (85.0)  Group 4, >20 mm (n=11) 4 (36.4) 7 (63.6)  p-value 0.003* 0.200 Knops classification  0 (n=52) 41 (78.8) 44 (84.6)  1 (n=22) 21 (95.5) 21 (95.5)  2 (n=6) 4 (66.7) 3 (50.0)  3 (n=8) 7 (87.5) 7 (87.5)  4 (n=8) 1 (12.5) 4 (50.0)  p-value <0.001* 0.010* Modified Hardy classification  0   A (n=41) 32 (78.0) 34 (82.9)  1   A (n=14) 12 (85.7) 12 (85.7)  2   E (n=4) 3 (75.0) 3 (75.0)   A (n=5) 5 (100.0) 5 (100.0)  3   E (n=5) 2 (40.0) 2 (40.0)   A (n=1) 1 (100.0) 1 (100.0)   B (n=2) 2 (100.0) 2 (100.0)  4   E (n=1) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0)   A (n=1) 1 (100.0) 1 (100.0)   D (n=1) 0 (0.0) 0 (0.0)   E (n=3) 1 (33.3) 3 (100.0)  p-value 0.10 0.06 Pathology result  Corticotropinoma (+) (n=71) 58 (81.7) 60 (84.5)  Corticotropinoma (-) (n=25) 16 (64.0) 19 (76.0)  p-value 0.07 0.30 Values are presented as number (%). Invasion : 0, sella normal; 1, sella focally expanded and tumor ≤10 mm; 2, sella enlarged and tumor ≥10 mm; 3, localized perforation of the sellar floor; 4, diffuse destruction of the sellar floor. Suprasellar extension : A, no suprasellar extension; B, anterior recesses of the third ventricle obliterated; D, intracranial (intradural) with anterior, middle, or middle fossa; E, into/beneath the cavernous sinus (extradural). * Statistically significant p-value Remission rates based on Knosp and Hardy classifications are presented in Table 2, respectively. The medium-term remission rates in Knosp group 4 were significantly lower than the rates in the other groups (Knosp 0 vs. 4, p<0.001; Knosp 1 vs. 4, p<0.001; Knosp 2 vs. 4, p=0.04; and Knosp 3 vs. 4, p=0.003). Additionally, the medium-term remission rate of tumors in Knosp group 2 was lower than that in Knosp group 1 (p=0.04). However, remission rates did not differ significantly among the other groups. Comparing invasive (Knosp 3 and 4) and noninvasive (Knosp 0, 1, and 2) tumors, remission rates within 3-6 months were 50% and 83% in the invasive and noninvasive groups, respectively. We further stratified cases with tumor size ≥20 mm (n=11) using Knosp classification; one case (9%) was Knosp 0, one case (9%) was Knosp 1, two cases (18%) were Knosp 3, and seven cases (64%) were Knosp 4 tumors. For ≥20 mm, all cases with Knosp 0, 1, and 3 tumors achieved remission within 3-6 months postoperatively, while none of the cases with Knosp 4 tumors had remission (p=0.01). All the cases with Knosp 0, 1, and 3 tumors sustained remission, and three cases with Knosp 4 tumor later achieved long-term remission (p=0.3). Of the cases that achieved long-term remission, two underwent STRS, and one had medical therapy with additional STRS. Of the 96 tissue specimens obtained during ETSS, 71 (74%) stained positive for ACTH and were histologically identified as corticotropic adenomas, while 25 (26%) were negative. Remission rates based on the pathology results are compared in Table 2. Of the lesions with conclusive findings on MRI (≥6 mm lesions), 89% (n=49) were pathologically confirmed as corticotropinomas, whereas 54% (n=22) of those with inconclusive MRI f indings were pathologically conf irmed (p<0.001). Among the lesions that showed negative results for both conclusive MRI findings (≤5 mm) and pathologic confirmation (negative for a corticotropinoma) (n=19), 12 (63%) showed remission at 3-6 months and 14 (74%) showed remission during long-term follow-up. During the exploration of the cavernous sinus in one patient (1%), postoperative lateral gaze paralysis of the eye developed due to right abducens nerve palsy. The patient was treated with anti-inflammatory doses of steroids, and the symptom completely resolved within 1 month. In three other patients (3%), severe epistaxis was observed in the postoperative period, 1 to 3 weeks after surgery. Nasal packing was applied for 3 days. Additionally, three patients (3%) experienced postoperative rhinorrhea. To address this issue, a reconstruction of the skull base was performed using fat tissue harvested from the leg, fascia lata graft, and tissue adhesive material. These patients were monitored with a lumbar drain for 1 week. Among the patients who developed rhinorrhea, one patient also developed meningitis and received intravenous antibiotic therapy for about 3 weeks and, the situation compeletly resolved during follow-up. The postoperative complications are summarized in Table 3. Comparison of various characteristics of the cases with and without medium and long-term remission are presented in Table 3, respectively. Table 3. Comparison of cases with and without remission, postoperative complications 3−6-month remission Long-term remission Number of cases (n=96) Remission (+) (n=74) Remission (-) (n=22) p-value Remission (+) (n=79) Remission (-) (n=17) p-value Operation 0.500 0.08  First time 62 (83.8) 17 (77.3) 66 (83.5) 13 (76.5)  Re-operation 12 (16.2) 5 (22.7) 13 (16.5) 4 (23.5) Tumor characteristics 0.003* 0.20  MST   Grade 1 31 (42.0) 10 (45.0) 33 (41.8) 8 (47.1)   Grade 2 22 (30.0) 2 (9.0) 22 (27.8) 2 (11.8)   Grade 3 17 (23.0) 3 (14.0) 17 (21.5) 3 (17.6)   Grade 4 4 (5.0) 7 (32.0) 7 (8.9) 4 (23.5)  Knosp classification <0.001* 0.01*   0 41 (56.0) 11 (50.0) 44 (55.5) 9 (53.0)   1 21 (28.0) 1 (4.5) 21 (26.5) 2 (12.0)   2 4 (5.0) 2 (9.0) 3 (4.0) 1 (6.0)   3 7 (10.0) 1 (4.5) 7 (9.0) 1 (6.0)   4 1 (1.0) 7 (32.0) 4 (5.0) 4 (23.0)  Hardy classification 0.09 0.06   0A 32 (43.2) 9 (41.0) 34 (43.0) 7 (41.0)   1A 12 (16.2) 2 (9.0) 12 (15.0) 2 (12.0)   1E 3 (4.0) 1 (4.5) 3 (4.0) 1 (6.0)   2A 5 (6.7) 0 (0.0) 5 (6.0) 0 (0.0)   2E 2 (2.7) 3 (14.0) 2 (3.0) 3 (17.0)   3A 1 (1.4) 0 (0.0) 1 (1.0) 0 (0.0)   3B 2 (2.7) 0 (0.0) 2 (3.0) 0 (0.0)   3E 0 (0.0) 1 (4.5) 0 (0.0) 1 (6.0)   4A 1 (1.4) 0 (0.0) 1 (1.0) 0 (0.0)   4D 0 (0.0) 1 (4.5) 0 (0.0) 1 (6.0)   4E 1 (1.4) 2 (9.0) 3 (4.0) 0 (0.0)   NA 15 (20.3) 3 (13.5) 16 (20.0) 2 (12.0) Postoperative  Complication 0.900 0.30   (+) 10 (13.5) 3 (13.6) 12 (15.2) 1 (5.9)   (-) 64 (86.5) 19 (86.4) 67 (84.8) 16 (94.1)  Pathologic diagnosis 0.070 0.30   Corticotropinoma 58 (78.4) 13 (59.1) 60 (75.9) 11 (64.7)   Negative 16 (21.6) 9 (40.9) 19 (24.1) 6 (35.3)  Remission during long-term F/U <0.001*   (+) 72 (97.3) 7 (31.8)   (-) 2 (2.7) 15 (68.2)  Residual tumor 0.001*   (+) 3 (3.8) 5 (29.4)   (-) 76 (96.2) 12 (70.6)  Remission during long-term F/U <0.001*   (+) 72 (91.1) 2 (11.8)   (-) 7 (8.9) 15 (88.2) Postoperative complication  DI-temporary 4 (4.2)  DI-permanent 4 (4.2)  Meningitis 1 (1.0)  CSF leak 3 (3.1)  Epistaxis 3 (3.1)  Cranial nerve palsy, transient 1 (1.0) Hypopituitarism 4 (4.2)  Hypocortisolism 2 (2.1)  Hypothyroidisim 2 (2.1) Values are presented as number (%). *Statistically significant p-values. MST : maximum size of tumor, NA : not available, F/U : follow up, DI : diabetes insipidus, CSF : cerebrospinal fluid Go to : DISCUSSION This study reported an overall postoperative 3-6 month remission rate of 77% and a long-term remission rate of 82% after 3 years of follow-up. The initial and long-term remission rates after first operations were 78% and 82%, respectively, with a recurrence rate of 2.5% over a follow-up period of 3-3.5 years. Additionally, our findings revealed that tumor size >2 cm and extended tumor invasion of the cavernous sinus (Knosp 4) might be associated with lower postoperative remission rates. Patients who showed remission within 3-6 months showed higher rates of long-term remission than those in patients without initial remission. Pituitary surgery is the first-line treatment modality for CD. ETSS is a safe and less invasive method for treating pituitary adenomas; therefore, it has been increasingly preferred in CD [5,15]. However, the postsurgical outcomes in patients with CD have shown variable remission and recurrence rates [2,4,9,16,17,21,30]. These discrepancies may be attributable to differences in population and number of cases involved in the studies, tumor characteristics, criteria for remission and recurrence used by the centers, laboratory parameters, time of evaluation and followup durations, surgical and imaging techniques used by different centers, and neurosurgical expertise. In this study, we present the medium- and long-term postoperative results of 96 ETSS procedures performed in 87 patients. The medium-term results (obtained 3-6 months postoperation) were preferred to immediate results since a subset of cases may show delayed remission, and immediate postoperative results could be misleading in almost 6% of cases [37]. The overall medium-term remission rate was 77%, consistent with the results published by Serban et al. [34], who reported an overall remission rate of 77% 2 months postoperation. A larger series of 1106 cases reported an immediate remission rate of 72.5% within 7 days postoperation; however, this rate decreased to 67% after delayed remission rates and recurrences 56 months postoperation were considered [12]. The long-term remission rate obtained over a median period of 3 years was 82% in our series. The increased long-term remission rate was attributed to reoperations, additional medical therapies, and the use of STRS in those who did not show remission initially. Of the 96 procedures, 79 were performed for the first time. The medium-term remission rate after first operations was 78%. Recent studies have reported remission rates of 74-82% after first operations [12,34]. The recurrence rates reported previously varied between 3% and 66% [5,12,34]. However, the duration of follow-up differed among the studies. Dai et al. [12] and Brady et al. [5] reported recurrence rates of 12% and 3%, respectively, after a follow-up period of 2 years. In contrast, Serban et al. [34] reported a recurrence rate of 17% after a longer followup duration of 6 years. In this series, after a median follow-up period of 3 years, the overall recurrence rate was 2.5%. Residual tumors were observed in five cases (6%), and the reoperation rate after the first operation was 13%. Including the eight patients admitted for reoperation after having undergone their first surgery in another center, 17 cases involved reoperations in our center. Of these cases, 71% (n=12) showed remission between 3-6 months postoperation, while none showed recurrence; thus, the long-term remission rate was 77%. Residual tumors were detected in three cases (18%), and the disease persisted in four (24%) of these 17 reoperated cases. Previous studies have reported remission rates of 22-75% after repeated surgery in CD [5,12,34,38]. Although the success rates after reoperations were lower than those in first-time operations in some studies [38], the remission rates after the first and reoperations did not differ significantly in our study. Tumor size has been reported to contribute to the success of transsphenoidal surgery [12,34], with microadenomas showing a higher success rate after surgery [5,12,34]. Our remission rates for micro- and macroadenomas were similar to those reported by Dai et al. [12] : 81% for adenomas <10 mm and 68% for adenomas ≥10 mm. However, the statistical significance of our study differed from that in the series presented by Dai et al. [12] (p=0.2 vs. p=0.002). This may be due to the large difference in the number of cases included in the two studies and the differences in size scales for tumors ≥10 mm. In our series, when the tumors were stratified further by the tumor size, the medium-term remission rate further decreased to 36% for tumors ≥20 mm in size, although the remission rates for other groups <20 mm were all above 75% (p=0.003). Sharifi et al. [35] classified pituitary MRI scans in CD showing a tumor size <6 mm as “inconclusive” because incidentalomas are frequent among tumors in this size range, and this size is not indicative of CD. Previously published series reported that the rate of inconclusive MRI scans in CD was 36-64%, and the remission rates varied between 50% and 71% for those with an inconclusive MRI scan [10,24,27,32,33]. In our series, 54% of the preoperative MRI scans were inconclusive. In the series presented by Sharifi et al. [35] and some other series [8,12,32,36], no significant difference was observed between the remission rates of CD cases with and without a conclusive MRI.This finding is controversial since other studies showed decreased remission rates with preoperative inconclusive MRIs [13,40]. Similar to the results reported by Sharifi et al. [35], we did not find a statistically significant difference between the remission rates of tumors <6 mm and those between 6-20 mm. However, a significant difference was observed between tumors <6 mm and those ≥20 mm. Residual tumors were more frequent after operating tumors >20 mm compared to those <20 mm, but the number of reoperations did not differ among the groups. Additionally, tumors >20 mm were primarily Knosp 4 (64%), probably contributing to lower remission rates in this group. Interestingly, two Knosp 3 cases had postoperative remission within 3-6 months without additional intervention. In these two cases, the surgical team explored the cavernous sinus and could resect the tumor. However, complete excision was not feasible with Knosp 4 tumors, where there is a complete encasement of the intracavernous internal carotid artery. Thus, a tumor size of 20 mm may be supportive data in predicting non-remission in the presence of complete cavernous sinus infiltration. Cavernous sinus invasion, determined by the Knosp classification, and sellar invasion and/or suprasellar extension, determined by the Hardy-Wilson classification, indicate the radiologic status of local invasion in cases of pituitary tumors [20,22,39]. Invasion to surrounding structures and tissues may be a limiting factor for postoperative remission of pituitary tumors. In the series presented by Dai et al. [12], remission rates of corticotropinomas with Knosp grade 4 (definitive cavernous sinus invasion) dropped to 53% from a remission rate of 77% for corticotropinomas with less likely or no cavernous sinus invasion (p<0.001). Similarly, our results showed that both medium- and long-term remission rates for Knosp grade 4 tumors decreased to 13% and 50%, respectively, and were lower than the remission rates in other grades (p<0.001 and p=0.01, respectively). While remission rates in Knosp group 3 were not inferior to noninvasive tumors, remission rates in Knosp group 4 were lower than all the other groups. In this regard, the extent of invasion may be more determinative. In contrast, in our series, the modified Hardy classification did not show a significant effect on postoperative remission rates in medium- and long-term follow-up assessments. Araujo-Castro et al. [3] had previously shown that for pituitary adenomas, the Hardy-Wilson classification lacked utility in predicting postoperative remission compared to the Knosp classification. The difference in the utility of these classifications for predicting postoperative remission may be due to differences in accessing tissues during surgery. In the present series, 74% (n=71) of tissues were histologically proven to be corticotropinomas, while 26% (n=25) did not show histologic confirmation. Medium- and long-term remission rates did not differ between histologically proven and unproven CD cases (medium-term remission rates, 82% vs. 64%, p=0.07; long-term remission rates, 85% vs. 76%, p=0.3). A conclusive finding of an adenoma on MRI increased the rate of histologic proof of corticotropinoma in our series, implying that adenomas showing a ≥6-mm lesion on MRI more frequently stained positive for ACTH. In previous studies 12-53% of CD did not have postoperative pathologic identification and the rate increased in those with a preoperative inconclusive MRI [25,31,38]. However, this did not have a significant influence on our remission rates. The remission rates did not decrease even for CD cases that were not conclusively detected on MRI and could not be histologically proven. On the other hand, in previous studies, ACTH positivity was higher, and the lack of proof for a corticotropinoma decreased the remission rates [1,12,31,32,34]. The higher remission rates despite reduced localization with MRI and/or lower rates of histologic confirmation in our series may be explained by the successful preoperative IPSS lateralization, surgical exploration, and hemi-hypophysectomy procedure. Furthermore, tumor tissues might have been aspirated along with blood and other materials through the suction tube, potentially resulting in less histological confirmation despite postoperative remission of CD. Additionally, tumor tissues might have been aspirated along with blood and other materials through the suction tube, potentially resulting in less histological confirmation despite postoperative remission of CD. The total rate of complications in this series was 20%, and the most frequent complication was diabetes insipidus (DI; 8%, both permanent and temporary). The incidence of hypopituitarism was relatively lower (4%), mainly involving hypocortisolism and hypothyroidism. Recent studies have shown postoperative DI rates of 25-66% and hypothyroidism rates of 11-23% [5,34]. Although our neurosurgical team was experienced in conducting pituitary surgeries, other factors may have resulted in these differences. Since not all the cases were postoperatively followed in our center, with some patients lost to follow-up, there may be missing data. Comparing cases with and without remission in the medium term, cases of remission frequently involved adenomas >20 mm and less cavernous sinus invasion. Additionally, cases that achieved medium-term remission showed long-term remission more frequently. In the long term, those showing remission had less cavernous sinus invasion and residual tumors compared to those without remission. Therefore, we may conclude that a tumor size of 20 mm may predict medium-term remission, while the absence of/less cavernous sinus invasion, early remission, and absence of residual tumor may predict long-term remission. This study had limitations. First, the retrospective nature of the study and the limited number of cases, which was inevitable due to the low incidence of CD, may have distorted our results. Although the same neurosurgical team operated on all patients, they were followed up pre and postoperatively at different endocrinology centers, causing difficulty in obtaining the full postoperative data of certain cases. Lastly, some patients recently underwent ETSS; thus, they had a shorter follow-up period. However, we intend to present the longer-term outcomes of all patients in a separate study. Although ETSS is the first-line treatment for CD, previous studies on the use of ETSS for CD have reported a wide range of remission and recurrence rates, which can be primarily attributed to differences in the surgical experience levels among centers. This trend highlights the need for additional data from experienced centers to resolve the discrepancies in the existing data. Therefore, we present medium- and long-term follow-up data from 96 operations for CD conducted in a center with a high level of experience for ETSS. We believe our study makes a significant contribution to the literature because the findings reconfirm the usefulness of ETSS for the treatment of CD and highlight the importance of the size of the adenoma and presence/absence of cavernous sinus invasion on preoperative MRI in predicting long-term remission postoperatively. Go to : CONCLUSION ETSS is a safe and effective method for the treatment of CD. Some characteristics of adenomas, such as size, cavernous sinus invasion, and postoperative residue, may predict long-term remission. A tumor size of 2 cm may be a supporting criterion for predicting remission status in the presence of complete cavernous sinus infiltration. Further studies with larger patient populations are necessary to support this finding. Go to : Notes Conflicts of interest No potential conflicts of interest relevant to this study exist. Informed consent Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in this study. Author contributions Conceptualization : BE, MB, EH; Data curation : EA, OH, DT, MM; Formal analysis : LŞP, DAB, DT, İÇ; Funding acquisition : OT, ÖG, DAB; Methodology : LŞP, İÇ, MM, ÖG; Project administration : BE, SÇ, EH; Visualization : EA, OT, OH; Writing - original draft : BE, MB, SÇ; Writing - review & editing : BE, EH Data sharing None Preprint None Go to : Acknowledgements This manuscript was edited by a certified English Proofreading Service (Editage). Go to : References 1. Acebes JJ, Martino J, Masuet C, Montanya E, Soler J : Early post-operative ACTH and cortisol as predictors of remission in Cushing’s disease. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 149 : 471-477; discussion 477-479, 2007 2. Aranda G, Enseñat J, Mora M, Puig-Domingo M, Martínez de Osaba MJ, Casals G, et al : Long-term remission and recurrence rate in a cohort of Cushing’s disease: the need for long-term follow-up. Pituitary 18 : 142-149, 2015 3. 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World Neurosurg 77 : 525-532, 2012 From https://jkns.or.kr/journal/view.php?doi=10.3340/jkns.2023.0100

Abstract Pituitary surgery, a critical intervention for various pituitary disorders, has sparked ongoing debates regarding the preference between endoscopic and microscopic transsphenoidal approaches. This systematic review delves into the outcomes associated with these techniques, taking into account the recent advancements in neurosurgery. The minimally invasive nature of endoscopy, providing improved visualization and reduced morbidity, stands in contrast to the well-established track record of the conventional microscopic method. Examining outcomes for disorders such as Cushing's disease and acromegaly, the review synthesizes evidence from Denmark, Bulgaria, and China. Noteworthy advantages of endoscopy encompass higher resection rates, shorter surgery durations, and fewer complications, endorsing its effectiveness in pituitary surgery. While emphasizing the necessity for prospective trials, the review concludes that endoscopic approaches consistently showcase favorable outcomes, influencing the ongoing discourse on the optimal surgical strategies for pituitary disorders. Introduction & Background Pituitary surgery is a critical intervention for various pituitary disorders, and the choice between endoscopic and microscopic transsphenoidal approaches has been a subject of ongoing debate within the medical community. This systematic review aims to explore and analyze the outcomes associated with endoscopic and microscopic transsphenoidal pituitary surgery. As advancements in surgical techniques continue to shape the field of neurosurgery, understanding the comparative effectiveness of these two approaches becomes imperative. The endoscopic approach, characterized by its minimally invasive nature, has gained popularity for pituitary surgery in recent years [1]. Proponents argue that it provides enhanced visualization, improved maneuverability, and reduced patient morbidity. On the other hand, traditional microscopic transsphenoidal surgery has been the conventional method for decades, known for its familiarity among surgeons and established track record [2]. Several studies have investigated the outcomes of these approaches in treating pituitary disorders, including but not limited to Cushing's disease, pituitary adenomas, and other tumors. For instance, a systematic review and meta-analysis by Chen et al. compared endoscopic and microscopic transsphenoidal surgery specifically for Cushing's disease, shedding light on the effectiveness of these approaches in managing this specific condition [3]. Moreover, Møller et al. reported promising results for endoscopic pituitary surgery based on the experiences of experienced microscopic pituitary surgeons, indicating a potential shift towards the adoption of the endoscopic technique [1]. Guo et al. conducted a meta-analysis comparing the effectiveness of microscopic and endoscopic surgery for treating pituitary disorders, contributing valuable insights into the overall efficacy of these approaches [4]. This review aims to contribute to the ongoing discourse on pituitary surgery by providing a comprehensive analysis of the outcomes associated with endoscopic versus microscopic transsphenoidal approaches. By synthesizing the existing evidence, we strive to offer valuable insights that can guide both clinicians and researchers in making informed decisions regarding the optimal surgical approach for pituitary disorders. Review Materials and methods This systematic review strictly adheres to the established Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, employing a comprehensive approach to investigate the outcomes of endoscopic versus microscopic transsphenoidal pituitary surgery. The subsequent sections delineate the criteria for study inclusion, the search strategy utilized, and the methodology employed for data synthesis. Search Strategy We conducted a meticulous search across prominent electronic databases, including PubMed, Embase, and the Cochrane Library, to identify pertinent articles. Our search strategy comprised a combination of Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) terms and keywords related to pituitary surgery, encompassing both endoscopic and microscopic approaches. Boolean operators (AND, OR) were strategically employed to refine the search and identify studies meeting our predetermined inclusion criteria. The search string used for PubMed was ("Outcomes" OR "Treatment Outcome" OR "Surgical Outcome") AND ("Endoscopic Transsphenoidal Pituitary Surgery" OR "Endoscopic Pituitary Surgery" OR "Endoscopic Hypophysectomy") AND ("Microscopic Transsphenoidal Pituitary Surgery" OR "Microscopic Pituitary Surgery" OR "Microscopic Hypophysectomy" OR "Endoscopy"[Mesh] OR "Endoscopy, Surgical"[Mesh] OR "Transsphenoidal Hypophysectomy"[Mesh] OR "Microsurgery"[Mesh] OR "Microscopic Hypophysectomy"[Mesh]). Eligibility Criteria Stringent inclusion criteria were predefined to ensure the selection of high-quality and relevant studies. The included studies focused on investigating the outcomes of endoscopic versus microscopic transsphenoidal pituitary surgery. Only articles published in peer-reviewed journals within the timeframe from the inception of relevant databases until October 2023 were considered. Exclusion criteria encompassed studies on other interventions, those lacking sufficient data on surgical outcomes, and studies solely involving animal cells. Additionally, only studies in the English language with full-text availability were included, and gray literature was not considered eligible. Data Extraction and Synthesis Two independent reviewers meticulously screened titles and abstracts to identify potentially eligible studies. Subsequently, full-text articles were retrieved and evaluated for adherence to inclusion criteria. Discrepancies between reviewers were resolved through discussion and consultation with a third reviewer. Relevant data, including study design, patient characteristics, interventions, and surgical outcomes, were systematically extracted using a predefined data extraction form. Data Analysis A narrative synthesis approach was employed to summarize findings from included studies due to anticipated heterogeneity in study designs and outcome measures. Key themes and patterns related to the outcomes of endoscopic versus microscopic transsphenoidal pituitary surgery were identified and presented. Results Study Selection Process Following four database searches, 97 articles were initially identified. After eliminating eight duplicates, the titles and abstracts of the remaining 89 publications were evaluated. Subsequently, 17 potential studies underwent eligibility verification through a thorough examination of their full texts. Ultimately, three articles satisfied the inclusion criteria. No additional studies meeting the eligibility criteria were found during the examination of references in the selected articles. The entire process is visually depicted in the PRISMA flowchart (Figure 1). Figure 1: PRISMA flow diagram of the selection of studies for inclusion in the systematic review. PRISMA: Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses Characteristics of Selected Studies Overall, three papers met the inclusion criteria. Two studies were randomized controlled trials (RCTs), one each from Bulgaria and China. One study was an observational study from Denmark. The main findings and characteristics of the included studies are mentioned in the following tables (Table 1 and Table 2). Author Year Country Study type Sample size No. of participants in the endoscopic group No. of participants in the microscopic group Main findings Møller et al. [1] 2020 Denmark Observational study 240 45 195 The study comparing endoscopic and microscopic transsphenoidal pituitary surgery revealed that the endoscopic technique exhibited advantages, achieving a higher rate of gross total resection (39% vs. 22%) and shorter surgery duration (86 minutes vs. 106 minutes). Complications within 30 days were lower with the endoscope (17% vs. 27%), and grade II complications or higher were significantly reduced (4% vs. 20%) compared to the microscopic approach. Pituitary function outcomes favored the endoscope, with fewer new deficiencies in the HPA axis (3% vs. 34%) and TSH-dependent deficiencies (15% vs. 38%). The HPG axis also showed better normalization in the endoscopic group (32% vs. 19%). Visual field impairment and postoperative improvement did not significantly differ between the two techniques. Overall, the findings suggest that endoscopic transsphenoidal pituitary surgery may offer superior outcomes compared to the microscopic approach, particularly in terms of resection rates and complication profiles. Vassilyeva et al. [5] 2023 Bulgaria RCT 83 43 40 The study compared endoscopic and microscopic transsphenoidal pituitary surgery in acromegaly patients, revealing comparable demographic profiles between the groups. Endoscopic surgery demonstrated advantages with shorter anesthesia and surgery times, as well as a reduced postoperative hospital stay. Complete tumor removal was more frequent with endoscopic adenomectomy, while microscopic surgery showed a higher rate of sub-total removal. Both techniques led to a tendency for somatic improvement, with more pronounced visual function improvement in the endoscopic group. Complications, such as liquorrhea and endocrine disorders, were generally low, with endoscopic surgery showing mainly mild complications. Disease remission rates were similar between the groups at various follow-up intervals. In conclusion, while both techniques proved effective in achieving remission, endoscopic surgery exhibited favorable outcomes in terms of efficiency and some aspects of complication profiles. Zhang et al. [6] 2021 China RCT 46 23 23 Endoscopic transsphenoidal pituitary surgery for the treatment of Cushing's disease showed comparable efficacy to microscopic transseptal pituitary surgery but with the added benefits of shorter operative time, reduced estimated blood loss, shorter hospital stays, and fewer complications. Table 1: Summary of the studies included in this systematic review. RCT: randomized controlled trial; HPA: hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal; TSH: thyroid-stimulating hormone; HPG: hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal Technique Møller et al. [1] Vassilyeva et al. [5] Zhang et al. [6] Male-to-female ratio (endoscopic) 25:20 17:26 13:10 Male-to-female ratio (microscopic) 107:88 16:24 12:11 Mean age in years (endoscopic) 61 43.26 55.6 Mean age in years (microscopic) 58 44.12 53.2 Functional tumors (endoscopic) 15 All functional All functional Non-functional tumors (endoscopic) 29 - - Functional tumors (microscopic) 69 All functional All functional Non-functional tumors (microscopic) 115 - - Microadenoma size (mm) (endoscopic) - 4 19 Macroadenoma size (mm) (endoscopic) - 39 4 Microadenoma size (mm) (microscopic) - 3 18 Macroadenoma size (mm) (microscopic) - 37 5 Mean operative time (min) (endoscopic) 86 142 108 Mean operative time (min) (microscopic) 106 176 174 Mean hospital stay (days) (endoscopic) - 5 2.8 Mean hospital stay (days) (microscopic) - 7 5.1 Postoperative complications (endoscopic) 2 15 3 Postoperative complications (microscopic) 39 10 8 Table 2: Summary of demographics, tumor characteristics, and postoperative outcomes of the studies included in this systematic review. The quality assessment of the selected studies was done using the Newcastle-Ottawa Quality Assessment Scale. All three studies included in this study turned out to be of high quality with a rating of 9/9 stars (Table 3). Author Selection Comparability Outcome Total stars Møller et al. [1] ★★★★ ★★ ★★★ ★★★★★★★★★ Vassilyeva et al. [5] ★★★★ ★★ ★★★ ★★★★★★★★★ Zhang et al. [6] ★★★★ ★★ ★★★ ★★★★★★★★★ Table 3: Quality assessment of the included studies using the Newcastle-Ottawa Quality Assessment Scale. Discussion This systematic review thoroughly assesses the effectiveness and results of endoscopic transsphenoidal pituitary surgery in comparison to microscopic transsphenoidal surgery, with a specific focus on pituitary adenomas, including Cushing's disease and acromegaly. The results contribute significant insights into the evolving landscape of pituitary surgery, highlighting the benefits and limitations of both surgical techniques. The selected studies offer valuable insights into the comparative outcomes. Møller et al.'s observational study in Denmark suggests that endoscopic surgery exhibits superior outcomes with higher gross total resection rates, shorter surgery duration, and fewer complications [1]. Vassilyeva et al.'s RCT in Bulgaria, focusing on acromegaly patients, indicates endoscopic advantages such as shorter anesthesia and surgery times, reduced postoperative stay, and comparable remission rates [5]. Zhang et al.'s RCT in China, specifically for Cushing's disease, suggests comparable efficacy with added benefits favoring endoscopy [6]. The endoscopic approach has been advocated for its panoramic visualization and superior mobility, which are crucial in resecting tumors while preserving normal structures [7,8]. Studies have shown a higher remission rate in endoscopic procedures for endocrine-active tumors, like growth hormone or adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)-secreting adenomas, compared to the microscopic approach [9,10]. Patient comfort and recovery play a significant role in evaluating surgical methods. The endoscopic technique, by avoiding submucosal excision of nasal tissues, typically results in less postoperative pain and rhinological dysfunction. Studies, including ours, have reported shorter operative times and hospital stays with endoscopic surgery, attributed to fewer intraoperative and postoperative complications and a reduced need for wound management [11-13]. Safety is paramount to any surgical intervention. The endoscopic method has shown a decrease in common complications such as cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leak, pituitary hormone dysfunction, and diabetes insipidus. Additionally, the endoscopic procedure exhibited fewer complications, which could be attributed to the enhanced visualization allowing for more precise tumor excision and preservation of vital structures [14-16]. In the context of acromegaly patients, the endoscopic technique has demonstrated increased radicality in tumor removal. Our review aligns with these findings, showing a higher rate of total tumor resection in endoscopic patients compared to those undergoing microscopic surgery. This improved outcome is likely due to better illumination and a wider angle of vision provided by endoscopic operations [5,17]. The endoscopic technique has shown a statistically significant improvement in visual function post surgery compared to the microscopic method. However, the frequency of certain postoperative complications, such as intraoperative liquorrhea, was higher in microscopic surgery. These differences underline the importance of the surgical technique in influencing the outcomes and complications of pituitary surgery [5,18]. Despite these findings, it is important to recognize the limitations inherent in these studies. Factors such as tumor size, density, and localization significantly influence surgical outcomes and procedure times. Additionally, the retrospective nature of many studies introduces potential biases, underscoring the need for more prospective, randomized trials for a comprehensive understanding of the long-term outcomes of these techniques. Conclusions This systematic review comparing endoscopic and microscopic transsphenoidal pituitary surgery outcomes indicates consistent evidence favoring the endoscopic approach. Notable studies from Denmark, Bulgaria, and China reveal superior results with endoscopic surgery, demonstrating higher resection rates, shorter surgery duration, and fewer complications. Endoscopy's benefits extend to patient comfort, as evidenced by shorter operative times and hospital stays. Safety considerations also support endoscopy, showing a decrease in common complications such as CSF leaks and hormonal dysfunction. Despite these strengths, the review underscores the need for prospective, randomized trials to address limitations and provide a comprehensive understanding of long-term outcomes. References Møller MW, Andersen MS, Glintborg D, Pedersen CB, Halle B, Kristensen BW, Poulsen FR: Endoscopic vs. microscopic transsphenoidal pituitary surgery: a single centre study. Sci Rep. 2020, 10:21942. 10.1038/s41598-020-78823-z Gao Y, Zhong C, Wang Y, et al.: Endoscopic versus microscopic transsphenoidal pituitary adenoma surgery: a meta-analysis. World J Surg Oncol. 2014, 12:94. 10.1186/1477-7819-12-94 Chen J, Liu H, Man S, et al.: Endoscopic vs. microscopic transsphenoidal surgery for the treatment of pituitary adenoma: a meta-analysis. 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Abstract Objective Since Cushing's disease (CD) is less common in the paediatric age group than in adults, data on this subject are relatively limited in children. Herein, we aim to share the clinical, diagnostic and therapeutic features of paediatric CD cases. Design National, multicenter and retrospective study. Patients All centres were asked to complete a form including questions regarding initial complaints, physical examination findings, diagnostic tests, treatment modalities and follow-up data of the children with CD between December 2015 and March 2017. Measurements Diagnostic tests of CD and tumour size. Results Thirty-four patients (M:F = 16:18) from 15 tertiary centres were enrolled. The most frequent complaint and physical examination finding were rapid weight gain, and round face with plethora, respectively. Late-night serum cortisol level was the most sensitive test for the diagnosis of hypercortisolism and morning adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) level to demonstrate the pituitary origin (100% and 96.8%, respectively). Adenoma was detected on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in 70.5% of the patients. Transsphenoidal adenomectomy (TSA) was the most preferred treatment (78.1%). At follow-up, 6 (24%) of the patients who underwent TSA were reoperated due to recurrence or surgical failure. Conclusions Herein, national data of the clinical experience on paediatric CD have been presented. Our findings highlight that presenting complaints may be subtle in children, the sensitivities of the diagnostic tests are very variable and require a careful interpretation, and MRI fails to detect adenoma in approximately one-third of cases. Finally, clinicians should be aware of the recurrence of the disease during the follow-up after surgery. From https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cen.14980

Abstract Background As the population ages, the number of elderly patients with an indication for pituitary surgery is rising. Information on the outcome of patients aged over 75 is limited. This study reports a large series assessing the feasibility of surgical resection in this specific age range, focusing on surgical complications and postoperative results. Methods A retrospective cohort study of patients with pituitary adenomas and Rathke’s cleft cysts was conducted. All patients were aged 75 years or over and treated by a single expert neurosurgical team. A control population included 2379 younger adult patients operated by the same surgeons during the same period. Results Between 2008 and 2022, 155 patients underwent surgery. Indication was based on vision impairment in most patients (79%). Median follow-up was 13 months (range: 3–96). The first surgery was performed with an endoscopic transsellar approach, an extended endonasal transtuberculum approach and a microscopic transcranial approach in 96%, 3%, and 1% of patients, respectively. Single surgery was sufficient to obtain volume control in 97% of patients. From Kaplan-Meier estimates, 2-year and 5-year disease control with a single surgery were 97.3% and 86.2%, respectively. Resection higher than 80% was achieved in 77% of patients. No vision worsening occurred. In acromegaly and Cushing’s disease, endocrine remission was obtained in 90% of non-invasive adenomas. Surgical complications were noted in 5% of patients, with 30-day mortality, hematoma, cerebrospinal fluid leak, meningitis, and epistaxis occurring in 0.6%, 0.6%, 1.9%, 0.6%, and 1.3% respectively. New endocrine anterior deficits occurred in only 5%, while no persistent diabetes insipidus was noted. Compared with younger patients, the complication rate was not statistically different. 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Am J Med 135(1):39–48 Article PubMed Google Scholar Download references Author information Authors and Affiliations Department of Neurosurgery, La Pitié-Salpêtrière University Hospital, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, 47-83 Boulevard de L’Hôpital, 75013, Paris, France Marta Garvayo, Vincent Reina, Stephan Gaillard & Bertrand Baussart Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital of Lausanne and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland Marta Garvayo & Mahmoud Messerer Université Paris Cité, CNRS, INSERM, Institut Cochin, 75014, Paris, France Chiara Villa, Anne Jouinot, Jérôme Bertherat, Guillaume Assié & Bertrand Baussart Department of Neuropathology, La Pitié-Salpêtière University Hospital, AP-HP, Sorbonne University, Paris, France Chiara Villa Department of Endocrinology, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Ambroise Paré, Boulogne Billancourt, France Mirella Hage & Marie-Laure Raffin-Sanson Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines UFR Des Sciences de La Santé Simone Veil, Montigny-Le-Bretonneux, France Mirella Hage & Marie-Laure Raffin-Sanson Department of Endocrinology and Reproductive Medicine, Centre de Référence Des Maladies Endocriniennes Rares de La Croissance Et du Développement, CRMERC, Endo-ERN, Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, AP-HP, Sorbonne University, Paris, France Carine Courtillot & Anne Bachelot Université Paris-Saclay, Inserm, Physiologie Et Physiopathologie Endocriniennes, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Bicêtre, Service d’Endocrinologie Et Des Maladies de La Reproduction, Centre de Référence des Maladies Rares de L’Hypophyse, Le Kremlin-Bicêtre, France Peter Kamenicky & Philippe Chanson Sorbonne University, Endocrine Unit, Reproductive Medicine, Centre de Référence Des Maladies Endocriniennes Rares de La Croissance Et du Développement (CRMERC), Endo-ERN (Id 739527), Saint-Antoine Hospital, AP-HP, Paris, France Camille Vatier & Sophie Christin-Maitre Inserm UMRS938, Saint-Antoine Research Center, Sorbonne University, 75012, Paris, France Camille Vatier INSERM UMR-833, Trousseau Hospital, Paris, France Sophie Christin-Maitre Department of Endocrinology, Center of Rare Adrenal Diseases, Hôpital Cochin, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France Jérôme Bertherat & Guillaume Assié Corresponding author Correspondence to Bertrand Baussart. 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The most common procedure to remove pituitary tumors is transsphenoidal adenomectomy. It allows the removal of the tumor with minimal damage to the surrounding structures. The surgical team accesses the pituitary gland through the sphenoid sinus — a hollow space behind the nasal passages and below the pituitary gland. If performed in specialized centers and by an experienced pituitary surgeon, this type of surgery is reported to result in an overall cure rate, or full remission, of Cushing’s disease for 80% to 90% of patients. A higher success rate is seen with smaller tumors. However, reported remission rates vary considerably, mainly due to differences in the criteria used to define disease remission. In some cases, a second transsphenoidal adenomectomy is required to fully remove tumor tissue; in others, the initial surgical procedure is paired with a second form of treatment, such as radiation therapy or certain medications. Given the complexity of the procedure, the guidelines recommend patients undergo surgery in specialized Pituitary Tumor Centers of Excellence. Patients also are advised to have the surgery performed by an experienced pituitary neurosurgeon. Follow-up for all patients should be conducted by a multidisciplinary team, including a pituitary endocrinologist. Lifelong monitoring for disease recurrence is required.

Introduction: The first-line treatment for Cushing’s disease is transsphenoidal surgery for pituitary tumor resection. Ketoconazole has been used as a second-line drug despite limited data on its safety and efficacy for this purpose. The objective of this meta-analysis was to analyze hypercortisolism control in patients who used ketoconazole as a second-line treatment after transsphenoidal surgery, in addition to other clinical and laboratory criteria that could be related to therapeutic response. Methods: We searched for articles that evaluated ketoconazole use in Cushing’s disease after transsphenoidal surgery. The search strategies were applied to MEDLINE, EMBASE, and SciELO. Independent reviewers assessed study eligibility and quality and extracted data on hypercortisolism control and related variables such as therapeutic dose, time, and urinary cortisol levels. Results: After applying the exclusion criteria, 10 articles (one prospective and nine retrospective studies, totaling 270 patients) were included for complete data analysis. We found no publication bias regarding reported biochemical control or no biochemical control (p = 0.06 and p = 0.42 respectively). Of 270 patients, biochemical control of hypercortisolism occurred in 151 (63%, 95% CI 50-74%) and no biochemical control occurred in 61 (20%, 95% CI 10-35%). According to the meta-regression, neither the final dose, treatment duration, nor initial serum cortisol levels were associated with biochemical control of hypercortisolism. Conclusion: Ketoconazole can be considered a safe and efficacious option for Cushing’s disease treatment after pituitary surgery. Systematic review registration: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/#searchadvanced, (CRD42022308041). 1 Introduction Cushing’s disease (CD) results from an adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) secreting pituitary tumor, which leads to chronic hypercortisolism (1, 2). It is a potentially fatal disease, with mortality rates up to 3.7 times higher than the general population (3, 4). CD is three times more common in women. According to consensus, the first-line treatment for CD is pituitary tumor resection surgery with the transsphenoidal technique (4, 5), which achieves short-term biochemical control rates of 60 to 80%, depending on the experience of the treatment center. In long-term follow-up, recurrence rates range from 20 to 30% even in cases with complete initial biochemical control (6, 7). Medication is a therapeutic option in patients who do not achieve biochemical control with transsphenoidal surgery (TSS), have recurrent hypercortisolism, and have contraindications or high surgical risk, or it can be used while waiting for the efficacy of radiation techniques (8). In such cases, adrenal-blocking drugs become important. Ketoconazole is an antifungal drug, a synthetic imidazole derivative that blocks multiple enzymes involved in adrenal steroidogenesis pathways (CYP11A1, CYPP17, CYP11B2, and CYP11B1). It was recently approved for use in CD by the European Union (9) and has been recommended for off-label use in the United States (2, 10, 11). Although recommended by professional guidelines (not regulatory authorities) for hypercortisolism, its use as an antifungal has been more restricted since regulatory agencies in Europe and the United States have issued statements regarding its high risk of hepatotoxicity, including reported deaths from liver failure (12, 13). Recently, a levorotatory derivative (Levoketoconazole) with estimated lower hepatotoxicity was introduced (14). Clinical studies evaluating the efficacy and adverse effects of ketoconazole in CD are scarce. Their limited and heterogeneous samples include hypercortisolism control as a first-line therapy or after TSS and they include patients with ACTH-dependent Cushing’s syndrome with indeterminate etiology (11–13). Two recent meta-analyses had divergent results regarding hypercortisolism remission rates with ketoconazole use: 46% vs. 64% (15, 16). Adverse effects, treatment interruption, and treatment-associated deaths have also been reported. Thus, studies evaluating the efficacy of ketoconazole for its main indication and continued or recurrent hypercortisolism after TSS are not currently available. This meta-analysis aimed to analyze the prevalence of biochemical control of hypercortisolism in CD patients who used ketoconazole as a second-line therapy after TSS, in addition to clinical and laboratory parameters that can predict therapeutic response and serious adverse effects due to ketoconazole treatment. 2 Materials and methods This systematic review and meta-analysis study was performed according to the PRISMA system (17) and was registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (CRD42022308041). 2.1 Identification of studies A search was performed in three databases: MEDLINE, EMBASE, and SciELO. In MEDLINE, using the Medical Subject Headings “Pituitary ACTH hypersecretion” or “Cushing’s disease” and “Ketoconazole” or “Fluconazole”, 305 articles were found. In EMBASE, using the Emtree terms “Cushing’s disease” and “ketoconazole” or “fluconazole”, 544 results were found. In SciELO, using the terms “Cushing’s disease” and “Ketoconazole” or “fluconazole”, five articles were found. The complete search strategy can be found in Supplementary Material 1. The searches were performed in June 2021 and updated in May 2022 although no new studies were added to the analysis through this step. A manual search was performed for references to reviews and meta-analyses in the included studies, as well as systematic reviews or articles on related topics. Every potential article was considered eligible for review, with no language limitations. Whenever necessary, authors were contacted to confirm information or supply missing data. 2.2 Selection criteria We selected observational, case-control, or clinical trials that included CD patients diagnosed through clinical manifestations in association with at least two positive screenings for hypercortisolism, baseline ACTH > 20 pg/ml, pituitary adenoma confirmed in surgery, bilateral petrosal sinus catheterization, or pituitary MRI showing a lesion > 6 mm (18). Patients must have undergone transsphenoidal surgery as first-line therapy, either without postoperative remission or with recurrence during clinical follow-up. Consequently, ketoconazole was used as a second-line treatment to control hypercortisolism. Studies of patients who received radiotherapy concomitantly with ketoconazole were not excluded. 2.3 Study selection, data extraction, and quality assessment Two authors (CV and ACVM) performed independent searches in the databases, selecting potential studies based on titles and abstracts for further analysis of the complete articles. Inter-rater agreement was 0.88 according to Cohen’s kappa coefficient (95% CI, 0.83-0.93) for the selected studies. Disagreements were resolved by consensus between the investigators (CV and ACVM) or when necessary, by a discussion with a third investigator (MAC). Baseline characteristics and outcomes were extracted from studies that met the inclusion criteria, including baseline and post-drug cortisol measurements, mean and maximum treatment duration, ketoconazole dose, potential adverse effects, and drug intolerance. The considered outcomes were the prevalence of complete, partial (reduction of > 50% in cortisol levels despite incomplete normalization of 24-h UFC), or no biochemical control of hypercortisolism with ketoconazole use. Data were extracted only when the studies reported ketoconazole use after transsphenoidal surgery (TSS). Studies that did not subdivide ketoconazole data into pre-and post-transsphenoidal surgery were excluded. Disagreements about data extraction were discussed until a consensus was reached. The original authors were contacted by e-mail to resolve questions or obtain missing data. Study quality was evaluated using a modified Newcastle–Ottawa scale (19). 2.4 Data analysis Rates of complete, partial, and no biochemical control were analyzed across all included studies and the pooled prevalence was calculated. Cochrane’s χ2 and I² tests were used to assess heterogeneity between studies, and p = 0.05 was considered significant. Incidence estimates were obtained by random effects models. Meta-regression was performed to analyze the relationship between ketoconazole dose, treatment time, and baseline cortisol level. Publication bias was assessed with a funnel plot that assesses the incidences in relation to the standard error of each study, which was determined using the Begg and Egger tests. Meta-analysis was performed using R version 4.1.2 and R META package version 4.19.2. 3 Results Electronic and manual database searches resulted in 735 studies, of which 652 were excluded after analyzing the titles and abstracts. We selected 83 studies for full-text review. After applying the exclusion criteria, 10 articles remained (totaling 270 patients) for analysis and complete data extraction (10, 20–28). The flow diagram is shown in Figure 1. No articles using the term fluconazole in the context of CD were found in the searches. Figure 1 Figure 1 Flow diagram: Identification and selection of articles for the meta-analysis. All of the selected studies used normalized 24-h UFC levels as a criterion for biochemical control of hypercortisolism except for one (24), which used serum cortisol level and the suppression test with 2 mg of dexamethasone (Liddle test). Most patients were women and were treated with ketoconazole for a mean of 31.4 months and a maximum of 45 months. Details of each included study are presented in Table 1. Unpublished data from a conference abstract from a Brazilian cohort were included and were supplemented through direct contact with the authors (27). Table 1 Table 1 Characteristics of the included studies. The study quality analysis is shown in Table 2. In general, the quality of the articles was adequate. Some data could not be extracted due to uncertainty about when TSS had been performed and ketoconazole therapy had begun. In such cases, the authors were contacted and, if they did not respond by the time of the analyses, the data were excluded. The study by Huguet et al. (23) was excluded from the analysis of the “no biochemical control” variable for not mentioning non-remission as a possible outcome. Table 2 Table 2 Quality of the included studies (one-star maximum for each item, except comparability of cohorts, with two maximum). Begg and Egger’s tests were performed to assess publication bias regarding biochemical control of hypercortisolism. Since the results were not significant, there was no need to perform a trim-and-fill analysis. Funnel Plots (Figures 2, 3) demonstrate the lack of publication bias regarding biochemical control and no biochemical control (p = 0.06 and p = 0.42, respectively). Figure 2 Figure 2 Funnel Plot of hypercortisolism remission with Ketoconazole. Figure 3 Figure 3 Funnel Plot of hypercortisolism non-remission with ketoconazole. 3.1 Control of hypercortisolism (biochemical control) Ten studies (270 patients) indicated the prevalence of biochemical control of hypercortisolism in patients who underwent TSS and received ketoconazole as a second-line therapy. A total of 151 patients had complete biochemical control (63%; 95% CI, 50-74%; see Figure 4). We performed a meta-analysis without including Correa Silva’s unpublished data, and the prevalence of hypercortisolism remission remained at 63%. These charts can be found in the Supplementary Material. Figure 4 Figure 4 Forest plot of hypercortisolism remission with Ketoconazole. The high variability between studies is partly explained by the clinical differences between cohorts, which explain the 39 to 89% variation in remission rates. The lowest complete remission rate, 39%, was found in Di Somma et al. However, in addition to being the only prospective study, there was a high rate of partial biochemical control (61%), and no patient was classified as no biochemical control. This cohort also had the highest mean baseline cortisol levels (1413 nmol/24h, 9.46 times above the upper reference limit) and the lowest mean final ketoconazole dose (400 mg daily). The highest remission rate, 89%, was found in Sonino et al., a retrospective cohort, which might explain why ketoconazole was administered only in patients with a more favorable clinical response. Heterogeneity was 57% in this analysis. No biochemical control occurred in 61 of 270 patients or 20% of the sample (95% CI, 10-35%) (Figure 5). The four cohorts with the highest rates of non-remission, Kakade HR et al. (50%), Luisetto G et al. (50%), Castinetti F et al. (41%), and Espinosa de los Monteros et al. (26.7%) did not involve the concept of partial biochemical control, which was used in the other cohorts. Heterogeneity was 4% in this analysis. Figure 5 Figure 5 Forest plot of hypercortisolism non-remission with ketoconazole. Although the concept of partial response was not addressed directly in most studies, some patients experienced a reduction of > 50% in cortisol levels despite incomplete normalization. This condition was described in five cohorts (10, 21, 26, 27, 28), demonstrating partial benefits from ketoconazole in 59 patients (21.7%). Only five papers mentioned how many patients underwent radiotherapy during treatment with ketoconazole; at least 59 patients (21%) received radiotherapy treatment concomitantly or subsequent to ketoconazole (10, 22, 23, 27, 28). 3.2 Adverse effects Although all of the studies described adverse effects from ketoconazole, only two provided information about them after TSS (26, 28). The following stood out among the main adverse effects: elevated transaminase levels, diarrhea, abdominal pain, skin rash, gynecomastia, and adrenal insufficiency. Medication discontinuation due to intolerance was reported in three studies (10, 20, 28). Due to insufficient data, it was not possible to perform a meta-analysis of the prevalence of adverse effects. No deaths related to ketoconazole were reported in any study. 3.3 Meta-regression In studies that evaluated hypercortisolism remission, meta-regression was used to analyze which variables influenced the occurrence or not of biochemical control. Both the final dose of ketoconazole (six studies with a mean dose of 628 mg/day: range 400 mg to 779 mg/day), the duration of drug treatment (seven studies with a mean duration of 31 months), and the baseline 24-h UFC levels (seven studies with a mean of 4.48 times above the reference value) showed no association with hypercortisolism remission (data not shown). 4 Discussion Drug treatment in CD is reserved only for patients with no biochemical control after TSS, in those who are not candidates for surgical treatment, or in those awaiting the effects of radiotherapy (2, 4). The available drugs in this context act in several ways: as adrenal blockers (ketoconazole, osilodrostat, metyrapone, mitotane, levoketoconazole, and etomidate), somatostatin receptor ligands (pasireotide), dopamine receptor agonists (cabergoline), or as glucocorticoid receptor blockers (mifepristone) (2, 29). These drugs must be prescribed considering aspects such as the potential for remission, potential adverse effects, availability, and cost. Moreover, no single drug has yet been demonstrated as superior to the others (2, 30, 31). Comparing our analyses with previous studies, we found that hypercortisolism control in patients who had already undergone TSS was higher than in studies that did not subdivide ketoconazole use into pre- and post-transsphenoidal surgery or in studies evaluating multiple etiologies of hypercortisolism (15, 16, 32). Our meta-analysis evaluated 10 studies from different countries and ethnic groups regarding CD treatment with ketoconazole due to non-remission or recurrence after TSS. The hypercortisolism biochemical control rate we found after TSS (63%) was greater than some prospective studies evaluating current drugs such as levoketoconazole but was also similar to that found in a systematic review by Pivonello et al. (64%) (14, 32). However, it was higher than that found in the most recent meta-analysis (36 to 46%) (15). These two systematic reviews (14, 15) did not subdivide ketoconazole use into pre- and post-transsphenoidal surgery, which can significantly impact the hypercortisolism control rate. A multicenter study by Castinetti et al. showed greater efficacy in patients who had already undergone TSS (68% control) compared to preoperative use (48.7% control) (10). These findings may be due to the fact that assessing patients with different states of hypercortisolism broadens the sample beyond only CD patients (i.e., probably including patients with ectopic ACTH syndrome and other etiologies) and, thus, the percentage of controlled patients may be lower. According to the literature, even without complete biochemical control, patients who present some reduction in serum cortisol levels, partial biochemical control, or improvement in any associated comorbidities are candidates for continuing ketoconazole alone or in a possible association with other medications (2). Our meta-analysis found that such was the case in 59 patients. Although the concept of partial response was not addressed directly in most of the included studies, some individuals experienced a > 50% reduction in cortisol levels but not complete normalization. By analyzing the overall rate of non-responders (20%), we can extrapolate that approximately 80% of patients treated with ketoconazole experienced some improvement in cortisol levels, which in itself demonstrates the medication’s efficacy. Although we considered the hypercortisolism biochemical control rate to be satisfactory with ketoconazole, many patients may lose biochemical control over the course of treatment or have long-term oscillations, and it has been suggested that this can occur in up to 23% of those who achieved initial control using the drug (2, 32), which shows the dynamic nature of their treatment and the constant challenge in clinical practice. This could not be established in our meta-analysis due to the lack of reported data (15, 16, 32). Although tumor size is not necessarily related to cortisol levels in CD, those with macroadenomas have a lower chance of remission after TSS (2, 33). Patients who use ketoconazole preoperatively may already have larger lesions, which makes surgery difficult, or active pituitary lesions, which can reduce the ability to achieve control through medication. In our meta-analysis, only two studies described tumor size and correlated it with remission after ketoconazole therapy (10, 24). The hypothesis that patients with lower pre-treatment serum cortisol levels or who used higher doses of ketoconazole would have higher biochemical control rates was not confirmed since we found no relationship between longer duration of use and higher remission rates. The data included in this review do not provide a profile of patients most likely to benefit from ketoconazole treatment. Other reviews of ketoconazole therapy in any context of Cushing’s syndrome have found that up to 20% of patients experience adverse effects such as elevated transaminase levels, with the majority being asymptomatic moderate elevation, i.e., < 5 times the upper limit of normality. These hepatic changes do not appear dose-dependent and are usually reversed within 2 to 12 weeks after ketoconazole discontinuation or dose reduction (34). When compared, up to 32% of participants experienced mild adverse effects in the levoketoconazole study, with 13% having to discontinue treatment (14). Our analyses have several limitations since nine of the 10 primary studies that were included in the meta-analysis were retrospective and uncontrolled in design. We could find no randomized clinical trials, and we know that only randomized, controlled trials with an intention to treat analysis can provide accurate estimates of drug efficacy. New therapeutic options are under investigation in clinical trials and will likely bring more robust data about hypercortisolism control in CD. Despite the limitations, consensus continues to indicate adrenal blockers, including ketoconazole, for patients with moderate CD and no visible lesions in MRI. The recommendation is that drug therapy should be individualized, based on the patient’s clinical picture, hypercortisolism severity, and medication availability and cost, so that treatment is optimized and applied for the necessary period of time (2, 33, 35, 36). 5 Conclusion Our meta-analysis showed that ketoconazole effectively controlled hypercortisolism in approximately 63% of CD patients when used according to its principal indication, i.e., in patients without remission after TSS. No association was found between hypercortisolism biochemical control and total medication dose, treatment duration, or initial serum cortisol levels. No serious adverse effects or treatment-related deaths were observed in these patients. These findings indicate that based on the current literature available, ketoconazole is an efficacious and safe drug for treating active CD after pituitary surgery. Data availability statement The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author. Author contributions CV, SPG and MAC created the research format. CV and ACVM developed the search strategies and independently applied the eligibility criteria, subsequently extracting the data. CV and ACVM performed a peer review of the data and assessed risk of bias. CV and VNH performed the meta-analysis. MAC oversaw all phases of the meta-analysis and arbitrated conflicts of opinion. SPG and TCR participated in the final data review and discussion. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version. Funding This work was supported by the “Coordena̧cão de Aperfei̧coamento de Pessoal de Ńıvel Superior” (CAPES), Ministry of Health - Brazil, through a PhD scholarship; and the Research Incentive Fund (FIPE) of Hospital de Cĺınicas de Porto Alegre (HCPA) and Programa de Excelência Acadêmica from CAPES (PROEX). Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Ana Cabral, librarian at the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, for her availability and assistance with the database searches and Professor Silvia Regina Correa da Silva for kindly providing additional unpublished data from her study. Conflict of interest TCR received a CNPQ research grant. MAC worked on clinical research for Crinetics and on the advisory board for Novo Nordisk. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. 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Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes (2007) 14(4):323–8. doi: 10.1097/MED.0b013e328248b498 PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar Keywords: ketoconazole, Cushing’s disease, treatment, systematic review, meta-analysis Citation: Viecceli C, Mattos ACV, Hirakata VN, Garcia SP, Rodrigues TdC and Czepielewski MA (2023) Ketoconazole as second-line treatment for Cushing’s disease after transsphenoidal surgery: systematic review and meta-analysis. Front. Endocrinol. 14:1145775. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1145775 Received: 16 January 2023; Accepted: 07 April 2023; Published: 08 May 2023. Edited by: Monica Livia Gheorghiu, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Romania Reviewed by: Leandro Kasuki, Instituto Estadual do Cérebro Paulo Niemeyer (IECPN), Brazil Przemyslaw Witek, Warsaw Medical University, Poland Copyright © 2023 Viecceli, Mattos, Hirakata, Garcia, Rodrigues and Czepielewski. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. *Correspondence: Mauro Antônio Czepielewski, maurocze@terra.com.br Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. From https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fendo.2023.1145775/full

Abstract Purpose: Transsphenoidal surgery is the first-line treatment for Cushing’s disease (CD), even with negative preoperative magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) results. Some patients with persistent or recurring hypercortisolism have negative MRI findings after the initial surgery. We aimed to analyze the efficacy of repeat surgery in two groups of patients and determine if there is an association between positive MRI findings and early remission. Patients and Methods: Clinical, imaging, and biochemical information of 42 patients who underwent repeat surgery by a single neurosurgeon between 2002 and 2021 was retrospectively analyzed. We compared the endocrinological, histopathological, and surgical outcomes before and after repeat surgery among 14 CD patients with negative MRI findings and 28 patients with positive MRI findings. Results: Immediate remission was achieved in 29 patients (69.0%) who underwent repeat surgery. Among all patients, 28 (66.7%) had MRI findings consistent with solid lesions. There was no significant difference in remission rates between the recurrence and persistence groups (77.8% vs. 57.1%, odds ratio = 2.625, 95% confidence interval = 0.651 to 10.586). Patients in remission after repeat surgery were not associated with positive MRI findings (odds ratio = 3.667, 95% confidence interval = 0.920 to 14.622). Conclusions: In terms of recurrence, repeat surgery in patients with either positive or negative MRI findings showed reasonable remission rates. For persistent disease with positive MRI findings, repeat surgery is still an option; however, more solid evidence is needed to determine if negative MRI findings are predictors for failed reoperations for persistent hypercortisolism. Keywords: Cushing’s disease; MRI; persistence; recurrence; repeat surgery 1. Introduction Transsphenoidal pituitary surgery is the primary treatment choice for patients with Cushing’s Disease (CD), which has a reported remission rate of 70% to 90% [1,2]. However, hypercortisolism persists in some of these surgical patients and recurs in 3–29% of patients, even in those who have benefited from remission for more than a decade [3,4]. In cases in which the primary surgery failed, serval treatments are considered, including reoperation, medication, conventional radiotherapy, radiosurgery, and bilateral adrenalectomy [4]. With remission rates as high as 87% [5], reoperation is a feasible option worth considering. Although some studies have concentrated on the risk factors and long-term outcomes of repeated transsphenoidal surgery [6,7], the necessity of reoperation in patients with varied clinical, imaging, and pathological characteristics has not been adequately discussed. Reoperation is considered when lesions remain visible on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), given that tumor removal will likely lead to remission, even if it is located in the cavernous sinus [8]. Nevertheless, the incidence of positive MRI findings is typically low in CD patients with either recurrent or persistent disease [5,9,10,11]. Furthermore, MRI has limitations in revealing the accurate structures of the operated area due to distorted anatomy related to the formation of granulation tissue and inflammatory changes after the initial surgery [12]. Unlike the considerable remission rate achieved after the first operation despite negative MRI findings [1], the decision to perform a second operation without visible lesions detected on MRI is challenging for neurosurgeons. These uncertainties emphasize the importance of discussing the risk factors and the necessity of repeat surgery, especially for patients with negative radiological results. Our retrospective study aimed to ascertain the treatment preference for reoperation in patients with persistent and recurrent CD and evaluate the significance of MRI findings for selecting patients that are likely to benefit from reoperation. Furthermore, we aimed to provide a reference for surgeons in making decisions on repeat surgical intervention for patients who are most likely to benefit, thereby improving the remission rates associated with reoperation. 2. Patients and Methods We retrospectively identified patients with CD treated with repeated transsphenoidal surgery between 2002 and 2021 at our institution. Patients with three or more pituitary surgeries were excluded from the present study. The preoperative and postoperative evaluations of the first surgeries are shown in Table 1. All patients fulfilled the following inclusion criteria: persistent hypercortisolism after initial surgery or recurrence after remission with a period of normocortisolism or adrenal insufficiency. Table 1. Preoperative characteristics of the initial surgery. This study included 42 patients aged 44.4 ± 14.6 years at the time of the repeat operation (Table S1). The median interval between the two operations was 43 months (interquartile range [IQR] = 18–90). The median follow-up duration after the second operation was 15.5 months (IQR = 4–59). 2.1. Diagnosis The diagnostic criteria for recurrence in the present study included new onset or recurrence of symptoms, clinical features, serum cortisol level, 24 h urinary-free cortisol (UFC) level, and biochemical tests (low-dose dexamethasone suppression test and high-dose dexamethasone suppression test (HDDST)), which are frequently used to define CD remission, recurrence, and persistence. An algorithm that is currently used in biochemical assessment and management of recurrent and persistent disease is shown in Figure 1. All tests were performed in a College of American Pathologists-accredited laboratory (No. 7217913). Serum cortisol and UFC were examined using an Access Immunoassay System (Beckman Coulter Inc., Fullerton, CA, USA). The normal ranges were 6.7–22.6 µg/dL and 21–111 µg/24 h, respectively. Plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) levels were measured using an ELSA-ACTH immunoradiometric method (Cisbio Bioassays, Codolet, France). The normal range was 12–78 pg/mL. A serum cortisol value of less than 5 μg/dL was considered to indicate remission. Patients who were not considered to be in remission were discharged and routinely evaluated 6 months after surgery for possible delayed remission. Patients were administered oral cortisone and gradually withdrawn to a physiologic replacement dose after 1 month. The yearly follow-up visit included physical examinations and serum cortisol, UFC, and plasma ACTH assessments. MRI was not performed routinely after surgery unless persistent or recurrent hypercortisolism was confirmed biochemically, as postoperative imaging may not be reliably interpreted for hormone-active pituitary adenoma. Figure 1. Algorithm of the biochemical assessment and treatment of persistent and recurrent Cushing’s disease. Contrast-enhanced pituitary MRI at our center was conducted to facilitate diagnosis and surgical planning using a superconducting magnet 1.5/3.0 Tesla scanner (SIGNA; GE Healthcare, Chicago, IL, USA). Before gadolinium injection (0.01 mmol/kg gadopentetate dimeglumine; Magnevist, Berlex Laboratories, Inc., Montville, NJ, USA), T1-weighted spin echo and T2-weighted turbo spin echo images were obtained in the coronal and sagittal planes. Beginning simultaneously with gadolinium injection, coronal and sagittal T1-weighted spin echo images were obtained 2 min after the injection. Imaging studies were independently reviewed by a neuroradiologist, endocrinologist, and the patient’s neurosurgeon. Pituitary imaging prior to the first surgery performed outside of our center was acquired and re-interpreted by the same team. Full agreement was reached on the positive nature of the MRI findings. Otherwise, when MRI findings appeared normal or interpretation was ambiguous, the MRI findings were considered negative. Meanwhile, bilateral inferior petrosal sinus sampling (BIPSS) with or without vasopressin (available after 2015) stimulation was performed in nine patients who experienced recurrence but lacked initially positive ACTH staining on the first histological examination to reconfirm whether the Cushing’s syndrome diagnosis was pituitary-dependent. Two patients were evaluated by BIPSS, although the initial pathology was positive. Regarding persistent disease, among eight patients without positive ACTH staining in their first pathological assessment, five were confirmed by positive BIPSS results and five were confirmed by visible radiological lesions. Only one patient with negative ACTH-staining adenoma underwent repeat surgery with either negative BIPSS results or negative imaging findings. 2.2. Surgical Procedure The same surgeon performed surgery on all patients via the mononostril transsphenoidal approach under a microscope or endoscope (available from December 2015). The initial location prior to the first operation did not guide the resection during repeat surgery. For each patient with positive MRI results, the imaging-identified areas for adenoma were biopsied as frozen sections for the initial pathological evaluation. Subsequent resection with a rim of pituitary tissue around the tumor cavity was conducted to confirm neoplasm-free margins. No further exploration was performed before frozen pathology confirmation was available unless the BIPSS result showed an increased ACTH level on the other side. For invisible tumors on MRI, the dura mater was opened widely to facilitate exploration of the whole gland, starting from the initial location on MRI before the first surgery or the side with the higher ACTH level in the BIPSS, if available. If no obvious tumor was identified on this side by the neurosurgeon intraoperatively, half of the gland was resected using the guidance of BIPSS lateralization. If a tumor was frozen pathologically and identified after half of the gland was removed, the residual gland remained unresected and was only gently explored and sampled in the most suspected area. In some circumstances in which the frozen section was negative, it was subjected to a subtotal adenohypophysectomy of the intermediate lobe and neurohypophysis. If invasive adenoma characteristics were also identified, the involved dura and medial wall of the cavernous sinus were resected or coagulated. A sample was collected for postoperative pathological confirmation, if available. 2.3. Outcome Patients were defined as being in remission with an immediate postoperative serum cortisol nadir <5 μg/dL or 24 h UFC at a normal level [13]. Persistent hypercortisolism was defined as an increased postoperative UFC level, while recurrent hypercortisolism was defined as a reappearance of hypercortisolism after a period of normocortisolism or adrenal insufficiency. 2.4. Statistical Analysis Descriptive statistics are presented as means ± standard deviations when normally distributed or medians and ranges when not normally distributed to describe patient outcome measures and incidence of remission among the study population. Statistical significance was set at a p value < 0.05. Fisher’s exact test was used to compare proportions of categorical measures between groups. All analyses were conducted using Instat (GraphPad Software, San Diego, CA, USA). 3. Results 3.1. Patient Characteristics The basic information and perioperative evaluations of the two operations are shown in Table 1 and Table S1. Among all 27 recurrent cases, the preoperative MRI before the first operation showed a definite pituitary adenoma. The other 12 patients with persistent hypercortisolism had positive MRI findings before the first surgery. The remaining three patients with negative radiographic findings were diagnosed with CD and underwent the first transsphenoidal surgery (TSS) based on their endocrinological results. For patients with confirmed persistent or recurrent CD, the imaging findings prior to the second operation of 14 individuals were negative (no solid evidence of tumors), and 28 clearly had positive results for the presence of a solid lesion. All patients who underwent a second surgery for recurrent or persistent hypercortisolism after the initial surgery were endocrinologically re-evaluated before the repeat surgery. There were 38 cases with positive HDDST results among 42 patients. BIPSS was performed in 18 patients with only one that did not reach the criteria of pituitary origin. 3.2. Outcome In our study, 29 of 42 patients (69.0%, 22 recurrent and 7 persistent cases of CD) were in remission after the repeat operation without additional therapy during follow-up (Table S1). At follow-up, compared with patients with persistent disease, the recurrence group had a higher remission rate, although the difference was not significant (77.8% [21/27] vs. 57.1% [8/15]; p > 0.05; odds ratio = 2.625, 95% confidence interval = 0.651 to 10.586). Negative preoperative MRI findings were not associated with lower odds of immediate remission after repeat surgery (p > 0.05; odds ratio = 3.667, 95% confidence interval = 0.920 to 14.622; Table 2). Table 2. The remission rate of the recurrent and persistent hypercortisolism patients with or without positive MRI findings. 3.3. Association between Outcomes and MRI Findings The remission rates of the persistent and recurrent disease groups with positive and negative MRI findings prior to the second procedure are shown in Table 2. Twenty-nine patients whose MRI findings revealed the existence of pituitary adenomas achieved successful outcomes after reoperation (Representative case, #19, Figure 2). The other seven patients who experienced recurrent or persistent hypercortisolism without clear imaging evidence of tumor appearance also benefited from reoperation (Representative case, #11, Figure 3). Figure 2. Preoperative and postoperative MR images of the two operations (A–D) demonstrate an in situ relapsed intrasellar mass (yellow arrow). Biochemical results obtained before and after the operations (E) show the tumor-related hormone change. KCZ, ketoconazole; MR, magnetic resonance. Figure 3. MR images (A) demonstrated a pituitary microadenoma on the left side (yellow arrow) before the first operation but not at the subsequent follow-ups (B,C). The biochemical results obtained before the second operation (D) revealed hypercortisolism indicating relapse without obvious MRI confirmation. MR, magnetic resonance; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging. 3.4. Pathology Respectively, 15/27 (55.6%) and 7/15 (46.7%) patients with recurrent and persistent hypercortisolism had ACTH-positive staining in the first pathological findings. Among patients who achieved remission after the second operation, 20 of 29 patients had confirmed adenoma with positive ACTH pathological staining, while 3 patients with adenoma were ACTH-negative. There were five patients that did not achieve remission even though they had positive ACTH-staining adenoma in the second pathological examination. Meanwhile, five patients achieved remission, although no adenomas were found in their pathological specimens. Overall, positive pathology after either the initial or repeated surgery was not a significant predictor for remission after the second surgery. 3.5. Complications Four of forty-two patients experienced major postoperative complications and underwent medical or surgical interventions. Most patients recovered well after the second operation, except in one case with persistent hypercortisolism, where a severe intracranial infection led to death. Another three cases with cerebral spinal fluid leakage related to the second operation were successfully surgically repaired afterwards. Hypopituitarism was a common complication in this subgroup of CD. All of the patients in remission after the second TSS underwent glucocorticoid replacement therapy (hydrocortisone or cortisone), adjusted according to the 24 h UFC. A total of 20 patients (20/29, 68.9%) underwent thyroxine replacement therapy. Three patients (3/29, 10.3%) had permanent diabetes insipidus. In the non-remission group, five patients (5/13, 38.5%) experienced hypothyroidism, and two patients (2/13, 15.4%) had permanent diabetes insipidus. 4. Discussion In the present study, we reported outcomes for 42 patients undergoing repeat TSS for recurrent and persistent disease in which an overall remission rate of 69.0% was achieved. Immediate remission rates after reoperation for recurrence have been reported in the literature up to 87% [13,14], which is similar to those of other second-line therapies such as radiation therapy and medical treatment. The CD recurrence rate after the initial TSS is reportedly 10–25% with a follow-up time of 10 years [15,16,17]. Ram et al. reported that surgeons performed a second TSS immediately after the first TSS when the postoperative serum cortisol level did not meet the standard level of remission. With an interval time of 1 to 6 weeks, 71% of patients with persistent disease achieved immediate remission, and 53% (9/17) achieved long-term remission [13]. Another study showed a remission rate of 70% with reoperation performed within 10 days [18]. A second TSS reportedly leads an additional 8% of patients to long-term CD remission [3]. Recurrence groups had slightly higher remission rates, which are insignificant when compared with persistent groups in the present study. Similar findings are demonstrated in the study by Ram et al. implicating that failure of the initial surgery suggested that the patient was more difficult to treat successfully with surgery than most patients with recurrence [13]. Therefore, the selection criteria for potential patients and reoperation strategies require further discussion. 4.1. Surgical Strategy The surgical strategy for the initial CD surgery varies depending on the major concerns of different pituitary surgeons. Some surgeons intend to preserve more normal gland tissue during surgery while others chase higher remission rates. Selective adenectomy is a reasonable choice for visible tumors. Several authors adopted a slightly extended resection with a rim or sometimes 2–3 mm of like-normal tissue around the tumor, which could be considered a partial hypophysectomy [19,20]. A hemi-hypophysectomy is more common in cases in which no tumor was identified during the operation, and the MRI or BIPSS results indicated remarkable lateralization of the tumor origin [21]. Wide exploration of the contralateral side should also be conducted in cases in which BIPSS results are inconsistent with the MRI findings, which may help identify tiny tumors. More extensive procedures, including subtotal or sometimes total pituitary gland resection, have been performed to maximize remission rates up to 75.9–81.8% [20,22], which may be a reasonable recommendation when imaging/intraoperative findings are not definitive, considering the negative impacts on reoperated patients with persistent hypercortisolism rather than hypopituitarism. Interestingly, pathological confirmation rates are fairly low in cases with extended resection even though they show high remission rates. There seems to be a current trend of surgeons performing a partial hypophysectomy, as a total hypophysectomy can lead to hypopituitarism [5,22,23], given that it may not obviously increase remission rates and may decrease quality of life [24]. 4.2. MRI Findings Regarding radiological findings, we emphasize that negative MRI findings do not necessarily indicate the inexistence of pituitary adenomas or negative pathological results. A number of cases in the study by Wagenmakers et al. showed that remission achieved after repeated transsphenoidal surgery was not predictable by positive MRI findings before the first or second operation [10]. Preoperative MRI provides a reference for the diagnosis of pituitary adenomas, although it has a limited predictive function for patient prognosis [9], especially for the repeat operation in which the original anatomical structure was more or less destroyed in the initial surgery. A positive MRI finding before the second operation should promote confidence in surgeons. The remission rate after reoperation with positive MRI findings was reportedly as high as 72.7% [10]. According to our study, the two positive-MRI groups with different initial surgical outcomes showed higher remission rates, albeit insignificantly. Positive MRI findings suggest better endocrinological outcomes may be achieved by a second operation in both recurrent and persistent disease groups compared with patients with negative imaging findings. An excellent remission rate (more than 80%) was achieved in the recurrent group with positive MRI findings, thus encouraging a repeat TSS. An acceptable remission rate (over 60%) close to those of alternative treatment options was observed in the recurrent group with negative MRI findings, as well as the persistent group with positive MRI findings. We noted that one patient with persistent CD and negative MRI findings achieved remission after reoperation. Therefore, whether a second surgical treatment is beneficial for these patients should be carefully considered. Regarding the recurrent or persistent cases of CD, patients underwent an initial surgery, and we regarded the MRI findings as a possible method to assist in decision making. A second operation is considered when visible lesions remain on MRI under the assumption that removal of the residual tumor leads to remission of the disease. Meanwhile, some recurrent and persistent patients with negative MRI findings also benefited from reoperation. Furthermore, MRI has its limitations in revealing the accurate structures of the originally operated area. The distortion and cicatrization from the previous operation and material packing in the sellar region lead to confusion [12,25]. Unlike the considerable remission rate achieved after the initial operation despite negative MRI findings, reoperation without certain lesion detection on MRI is associated with dissatisfactory remission rates [1], similar to the results of our study. Nevertheless, Knappe and Lüdecke [9] presented a different opinion regarding the significance of MRI findings and reported that it was not usually helpful for determining therapeutic strategies due to its low incidence of detecting existing microadenomas (missed diagnosis in 38–70% of cases). However, the BIPSS results in these cases in which MRI revealed no definitive information on tumors are therefore critical for surgeons to ascertain the pituitary origin of the disease, although another study suggested that MRI and BIPSS do not help locate recurrent tumors [10]. MRI may not help identify tumors in the cavernous sinus or other parasellar regions. 4.3. Pathology We compared the pathological results and remission situations of recurrent patients and persistent patients and failed to find any relationship between pathological results and remission expectations. These findings are supported by the findings of Ram et al. [13], in which no tumors were found in 11 of 17 patients during the second procedure, and 6 of 11 patients achieved remission. In a series by Locatelli et al. [11], no tumors were found in 8 of 12 patients during the second operation, and 5 had surgical remissions. Even in cases of remission, the positive rate of pathological exams was not as high as expected. There was no significant difference in remission rates between patients grouped by pathological results or one-to-one correspondence between histopathological confirmation and surgical outcomes [11]. To date, little evidence supports the prediction of reoperation outcomes by either of the two pathology results. 4.4. Other Considerations and Factors In patients with recurrent and persistent hypercortisolism after their first operation, it was difficult to identify solid lesions on MRI compared with the initial preoperative scans. Notably, BIPSS may provide more information, especially for patients who did not undergo this test before the first operation. Moreover, it may help avoid unnecessary repeat TSS in patients with persistent hypercortisolism by revealing false positives for pituitary ACTH overproduction. BIPSS results have the potential to not only confirm the pituitary origin of the condition (despite the fact that the first histological examination did not show ACTH-positive staining) but also to guide exploration and decision making for a hemi-hypophysectomy or accessing the cavernous sinus, especially for patients without obvious tumors identified intraoperatively. Careful dissection is highly recommended on the side of the obviously lateralized BIPSS results, which sometimes also indicate cavernous sinus invasion not shown on MRI and the necessity of opening the medical wall to achieve extended exploration. The predictive value of BIPSS lateralization in repeated surgery requires further investigation, although it is not optimal in native patients with CD [26]. According to a study by Lonser et al. [27], over 20% of CD patients had cavernous sinus invasion that was confirmed histologically. The authors advocated for complete resection, including the invaded sella dura and medial cavernous sinus wall by an experienced surgeon’s hands. Notably, endoscopy with magnification and lighting provides a panoramic view to facilitate extended exploration of the sella, including the cavernous sinus, compared with the microscope-based approach. Micko et al. demonstrated that an endoscope allows for a radical inspection of the entire medial wall of the cavernous sinus [28] and increases the lateral angle of visualizations to facilitate differentiation between tumor tissues and other tissues. These advantages over the microscopic transsphenoidal approach are critical for recurrent and unremitted cases; however, further studies with larger sample sizes are needed to verify this conclusion. 4.5. Other Adjunctive Treatments to Repeat Surgery Previous studies have noted that ketoconazole may contribute to enhanced tumor appearance on MRI to facilitate pituitary resection in some circumstances [29]. Castinetti et al. reported that visible lesions may be identified on MRI in one-third of patients who were administered ketoconazole [30]. In the literature, reoperation for persistent cases without visible lesions on MRI is rarely satisfactory [31], although these patients may benefit from radiosurgery using the entire sellar region as the therapeutic target [32]. The hormonal normalization was achieved after radiosurgery in half of the cases, including those with negative MRI findings [33]. In general, the radiosurgery outcomes and the less commonly used radiotherapy are more favorable, particularly in MRI-negative cases with persistent hypercortisolism compared with repeat surgery, with potentially fewer complications and a shorter length of hospital stay [34,35]. Salvage TSS for refractory CD after radiation therapy has rarely been reported [36] owing to the difficulty of disrupting surgical landmarks, the formation of scar tissue, and the effects of preoperative radiotherapy [34]. Bilateral adrenalectomy is generally considered the ultima ratio in patients who fail to respond to other treatment options. However, patients who undergo bilateral adrenalectomy will require lifelong surveillance of the corticotroph tumor’s progression, which may lead to Nelson’s syndrome, via MRI and ACTH measurements. Most experts agree that selective transsphenoidal adenomectomy should be recommended as the first-line therapy in patients with Nelson’s syndrome before extrasellar expansion of the tumor occurs [37]. 4.6. Limitations Similar to previous studies, our sample size was not large enough to conduct powerful statistical analyses. Some patients lost during follow-up limited the evaluation of long-term outcomes in the current study. We observed a trend in the predictable values of positive preoperative MRI findings, which is not enough evidence to support an apparent relationship. A potential weakness of the present study is that the outcome was only focused on the biochemical benefits of remission after surgical intervention, possibly leading to an underestimation of the risks of hypopituitarism and decreased quality of life. Indeed, larger case series are needed to further investigate the potential predictive factors and best surgical strategy. 5. Conclusions Patients with initial surgical treatment may experience hypercortisolism without positive MRI findings in both recurrent and persistent disease. Our findings suggest that for most patients who experience recurrent or persistent CD, reoperation should be an option even with negative MRI findings. However, further comprehensive investigation on recurrent or persistent CD patients is required. Larger groups of surgically treated CD patients with long follow-up periods should be evaluated to improve reoperation outcomes and determine the appropriate selection criteria for repeat surgery, especially for persistent CD patients. Supplementary Materials The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/jcm11226848/s1, Table S1. Preoperative and postoperative evaluation of the repeated surgery of 42 patients. Author Contributions B.W. and Y.S. contributed to the study’s conception and design. S.Z. drafted the manuscript. J.R., Z.Z., H.J., Q.S., T.S. and W.W. contributed to data acquisition, analysis, and interpretation. B.W. and Y.S. critically revised the manuscript for important intellectual content. Y.S. and L.B. accept final responsibility for this article. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding This work was supported in part by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (82000751) and the Shanghai Sailing Program (20YF1438900). Institutional Review Board Statement This study involving human participants was conducted in accordance with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards and was approved by the Ruijin Hospital Ethics Committee of Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine (approval number 2020-64). Informed Consent Statement The need for individual consent was waived by the Ethics Committee owing to the retrospective nature of the study. Data Availability Statement All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this article. Further enquiries may be directed to the corresponding authors. Conflicts of Interest The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. 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Reoperation for Recurrent and Persistent Cushing’s Disease without Visible MRI Findings. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2022; 11(22):6848. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11226848 Chicago/Turabian Style Wang, Baofeng, Shuying Zheng, Jie Ren, Zhihong Zhong, Hong Jiang, Qingfang Sun, Tingwei Su, Weiqing Wang, Yuhao Sun, and Liuguan Bian. 2022. "Reoperation for Recurrent and Persistent Cushing’s Disease without Visible MRI Findings" Journal of Clinical Medicine 11, no. 22: 6848. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11226848 Find Other Styles Note that from the first issue of 2016, MDPI journals use article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here. Article Metrics Citations No citations were found for this article, but you may check on Google Scholar Article Access Statistics Article access statisticsArticle Views20. Nov21. Nov22. Nov23. Nov24. Nov25. Nov26. Nov27. Nov28. Nov29. Nov30. Nov1. Dec2. Dec3. Dec4. Dec5. Dec6. Dec7. Dec8. Dec9. Dec10. 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The study covered in this summary was published on researchsquare.com as a preprint and has not yet been peer reviewed. Key Takeaways The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis recovered in nearly three quarters of patients with Cushing disease (CD) within 2 years after successful trans-sphenoidal surgery (TSS), with a median recovery time of 12 months. Preoperative total triiodothyronine (TT3) level appears to be an independent predictor of central adrenal insufficiency (CAI) in CD patients with biochemical remission post surgery. Why This Matters Transient CAI typically occurs after successful TSS, requiring physiologic hydrocortisone replacement until HPA recovery. Inadequate replacement may result in glucocorticoid withdrawal symptoms, including adrenal crisis, while overreplacement could lead to glucocorticoid side effects. Findings have been inconsistent regarding recovery time in CD patients and factors predicting HPA axis recovery. The new findings could help clinicians predict HPA axis-function recovery time and adjust cortisone replacement treatment in postoperative CD patients. Study Design The retrospective study included 140 patients with biochemical remission following CD surgery at a single institution from 2014–2020. Key Results The HPA axis in 103 patients (73.6%) recovered during 2 years' postsurgical follow-up. In 57 patients (55% of this subgroup), it recovered within 12 months. Patients were considered to have recovered if they achieved central adrenal sufficiency (CAS). These patients were significantly younger and had significantly lower midnight levels of adrenocorticotrophic hormone at baseline than those with persistent CAI. The researchers found no significant differences in gender, disease duration, maximal tumor diameter, or history of surgery between the two groups at the time of their diagnosis with CD. Both TT3 and free triiodothyronine levels were significantly lower in patients with persistent CAI vs CAS. There were no significant differences between the two groups in other laboratory parameters, surgical approach, or extended compared with nonextended resection, but more patients in the persistent CAI group underwent partial hypophysectomy. In a multiple logistic regression analysis, TT3 levels at diagnosis independently and significantly predicted HPA recovery at 2-year follow-up post surgery after adjustment for gender, age, duration at diagnosis, maximum tumor diameter, history of surgery, surgical approach (endoscopic or microscopic transsphenoidal surgery), adenomectomy range, and the minimal serum cortisol level within the first 7 postoperative days. Among the 37 patients with persistent CAI at 2 years, 23 (62%) had multiple pituitary axis dysfunctions, including hypothyroidism (19 patients), hypogonadism (19), and central diabetes insipidus (5). Limitations This retrospective study could not prove the causality of TT3 level for influencing recovery of the HPA axis. However, the number of enrolled patients was relatively large, and follow-up was regular ― factors that make the conclusion credible and representative, the authors said. Disclosures The study received no commercial funding. The authors had no disclosures. This is a summary of a preprint research study, "The Recovery Time of Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis After Curative Surgery in Cushing’s Disease and Its Predictor," by researchers at Huashan Hospital Fudan University, Shanghai, China, published on Research Square and provided to you by Medscape. This study has not yet been peer reviewed. The full text of the study can be found on researchsquare.com. Abstract Objective Patients with Cushing’s disease (CD) experienced transient central adrenal insufficiency (CAI) after successful surgery. However, the reported recovery time of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis varied and the risk factors which could affect recovery time of HPA axis had not been extensively studied. This study aimed to analyze the duration of CAI and explore the risk factors affecting HPA axis recovery in post-operative CD patients with biochemical remission. Design and methods Medical records of diagnosis with CD in Huashan Hospital were reviewed between 2014 and 2020. 140 patients with biochemical remission and regular follow-up after surgery were enrolled in this retrospective cohort study according to the criteria. Demographic details, clinical and biochemical information at baseline and each follow-up (within 2 years) were collected and analyzed. Results Overall, 103 patients (73.6%) recovered from transient CAI within 2 years follow-up and the median recovery time was 12 months [95% confidence intervals (CI): 10–14]. The age and midnight ACTH at baseline were significantly lower, while the TT3 and FT3 levels were significantly higher in patients with recovered HPA compared to patients with CAI at 2-year follow-up(p < 0.05). In persistent CAI group, more patients underwent partial hypophysectomy. TT3 at diagnosis was an independent predictor of the recovery of HPA axis, even after adjusting for gender, age, duration, surgical history, maximum tumor diameter, surgical strategy, and postoperative nadir serum cortisol level (p = 0.04, OR: 6.03, 95% CI: 1.085, 22.508). Among patients with unrecovered HPA axis at 2-year follow-up, 23 CAI patients (62%) were accompanied by multiple pituitary axis dysfunction besides HPA axis, including hypothyroidism, hypogonadism, or central diabetes insipidus. Conclusion HPA axis recovered in 73.6% of CD patients within 2 years after successful surgery, and the median recovery time was 12 months. TT3 level at diagnosis was an independent predictor of postoperative recovery of HPA axis in CD patients. Moreover, patients coexisted with other hypopituitarism at 2-year follow-up had a high probability of unrecovered HPA axis. total triiodothyronine Cushing’s disease central adrenal insufficiency Read more at

Objective: The first-line treatment for Cushing’s disease is transsphenoidal surgery, after which the rates of remission are 60 to 80%, with long-term recurrence of 20 to 30%, even in those with real initial remission. Drug therapies are indicated for patients without initial remission or with surgical contraindications or recurrence, and ketoconazole is one of the main available therapies. The objective of this study was to evaluate the safety profile of and the treatment response to ketoconazole in Cushing’s disease patients followed up at the endocrinology outpatient clinic of a Brazilian university hospital. Patients and methods: This was a retrospective cohort of Cushing’s disease patients with active hypercortisolism who used ketoconazole at any stage of follow-up. Patients who were followed up for less than 7 days, who did not adhere to treatment, or who were lost to follow-up were excluded. Results: Of the 172 Cushing’s disease patients who were followed up between 2004 and 2020, 38 received ketoconazole. However, complete data was only available for 33 of these patients. Of these, 26 (78%) underwent transsphenoidal surgery prior to using ketoconazole, five of whom (15%) had also undergone radiotherapy; seven used ketoconazole as a primary treatment. Ketoconazole use ranged from 14 days to 14.5 years. A total of 22 patients had a complete response (66%), three patients had a partial response (9%), and eight patients had no response to treatment (24%), including those who underwent radiotherapy while using ketoconazole. Patients whose hypercortisolism was controlled or partially controlled with ketoconazole had lower baseline 24-h urinary free cortisol levels than the uncontrolled group [times above the upper limit of normal: 0.62 (SD, 0.41) vs. 5.3 (SD, 8.21); p < 0.005, respectively] in addition to more frequent previous transsphenoidal surgery (p < 0.04). The prevalence of uncontrolled patients remained stable over time (approximately 30%) despite ketoconazole dose adjustments or association with other drugs, which had no significant effect. One patient received adjuvant cabergoline from the beginning of the follow-up, and it was prescribed to nine others due to clinical non-response to ketoconazole alone. Ten patients (30%) reported mild adverse effects, such as nausea, vomiting, dizziness, and loss of appetite. Only four patients had serious adverse effects that warranted discontinuation. There were 20 confirmed episodes of hypokalemia among 10/33 patients (30%). Conclusion: Ketoconazole effectively controlled hypercortisolism in 66% of Cushing’s disease patients, being a relatively safe drug for those without remission after transsphenoidal surgery or whose symptoms must be controlled until a new definitive therapy is carried out. Hypokalemia is a frequent metabolic effect not yet described in other series, which should be monitored during treatment. Introduction Cushing’s disease (CD) results from a pituitary tumor that secretes adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which leads to chronic hypercortisolism. It is a potentially fatal disease with high morbidity and a mortality rate of up to 3.7 times than that of the general population (1–4) associated to several clinical–metabolic disorders caused by excess cortisol and/or loss of circadian rhythm (5). In general, its management is a challenge even in reference centers (6, 7). Transsphenoidal surgery (TSS), the treatment of choice for CD, results in short-term remission in 60 to 80% of patients (8). However, recurrence rates of 20 to 30% are found in long-term follow-up, even in those with clear initial remission (9). Drug therapies can help control excess cortisol in patients without initial remission, in cases of recurrence, and in those with contraindications or high initial surgical risk (10). Nevertheless, specific drugs that act on the pituitary adenoma, which could directly treat excess ACTH, have a limited effect, and only pasireotide is approved for this purpose in Brazil (11, 12). In this scenario, adrenal steroidogenesis blockers are important. One such off-label medication is the antifungal drug ketoconazole, a synthetic imidazole derivative that inhibits the enzymes CYP11A1, CYP17, CYP11B2, and CYP11B1. Because of its hepatotoxicity and the availability of other drugs, it has been withdrawn from the market in several countries (13). In Europe, it is still approved for use in CD, although in the United States, it is recommended for off-label use almost in CD (14–16). Due to the potential benefits for hypercortisolism, ketoconazole has been replaced by levoketoconazole, which the European Union has recently approved for CD with a lower expected hepatotoxicity (17). Thus, when adrenal inhibitors are used as an alternative treatment for CD, information about the outcomes of drugs such as ketoconazole are important. Clinical studies on these effects in CD are scarce, mostly retrospective, multicenter, or from developed countries (14, 18). A recent meta-analysis on the therapeutic modalities for CD included only four studies (246 patients) that evaluated urinary cortisol response as a treatment outcome and eight studies (366 patients) describing the prevalence of some side effects: change in transaminase activity, digestive symptoms, skin rash, and adrenal insufficiency. Hypokalemia was not mentioned in this meta-analysis (19). The objective of this study was to evaluate the safety profile of and treatment response to ketoconazole in CD patients followed during a long term in the endocrinology outpatient clinic of a Brazilian university hospital. Patients and methods Patients We retrospectively evaluated 38 patients (27 women) diagnosed with CD. These patients, whose treatment included ketoconazole at any time between 2004 and 2020, are part of a prospective cohort series from the Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre neuroendocrinology outpatient clinic. The diagnostic criteria for hypercortisolism were based on high 24-h urinary free cortisol levels (24-h UFC) in at least two samples, non-suppression of serum cortisol after low-dose dexamethasone testing (>1.8 µg/dl), and/or loss of cortisol rhythm (midnight serum cortisol >7.5 µg/dl or midnight salivary cortisol >0.208 nmol/L). CD was diagnosed by normal or elevated ACTH levels, evidence of pituitary adenoma >0.6 cm on magnetic resonance image (MRI), and ACTH central/periphery gradient on inferior petrosal sinus catheterization when MRI was normal or showed an adenoma <0.6 cm. CD was considered to be in remission after the improvement of hypercortisolism symptoms or clinical signs of adrenal insufficiency, associated with serum cortisol within reference values, normalization of 24-h UFC and/or serum cortisol <1.8 μg/dl at 8 am after 1 mg dexamethasone overnight, and/or normalization of midnight serum or salivary cortisol. In patients with active disease, to evaluate the ketoconazole treatment response, 24-h UFC was used as a laboratory parameter, as recommended in similar publications (14, 16, 20, 21), but in some cases, we considered elevated late night salivary cortisol and/or 1 mg dexamethasone overnight cortisol (even with normal 24-h UFC), given the greater assessment sensitivity seen through these two methods in the detection of early recurrence when compared with 24-h UFC (22). Inclusion criteria We included patients with CD and active hypercortisolism who used ketoconazole either as primary treatment, after TSS without hypercortisolism remission, or after a recurrence. Exclusion criteria We excluded patients with CD and active hypercortisolism who used ketoconazole but had <7 days of follow-up, irregular outpatient follow-up, treatment non-adherence, and incomplete medical records or those who were lost to follow-up. Evaluated parameters Prior to ketoconazole treatment, all patients underwent an assessment of pituitary function and hypercortisolism, including serum cortisol, ACTH, 24-hour UFC, cortisol suppression after 1 mg dexamethasone overnight, midnight serum cortisol, and/or midnight salivary cortisol. The evaluated parameters were sex, age at diagnosis, weight, height, prevalence and severity of hypertension and DM, pituitary tumor characteristics, prior treatment (surgery, radiotherapy, or other medications), symptoms at disease onset, biochemical tests (renal function, hepatic function, and lipid profile), number of medications used to treat associated comorbidities, data on medication tolerance, and reasons for discontinuation, when necessary. The clinical parameters observed during treatment were control of blood pressure and hyperglycemia, anthropometric measurements (weight, height, and body mass index), jaundice, and any other symptoms or adverse effects reported by patients. The biochemical evaluation included fasting glucose, glycated hemoglobin, lipid profile (total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein, low-density lipoprotein, and triglycerides), markers of liver damage (transaminases, bilirubin, gamma-glutamyl transferase, and alkaline phosphatase), electrolytes (sodium and potassium), and renal function (creatinine and urea). Hypecortisolism was accessed preferentially by 24-h UFC, however, late-night salivary cortisol and cortisol after 1 mg overnight dexamethasone could also be used. Study design This retrospective cohort study included patients with CD who were followed up at the Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre Endocrinology Division, with their medical records from the first outpatient visit and throughout clinical follow-up collected. This study was approved by the Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre Research Ethics Committee (number 74555617.0.0000.5327). Outcomes Hypercortisolism was considered controlled when the 24-h UFC and/or late-night salivary cortisol (LNSC) and/or overnight 1 mg dexamethasone suppression test (DST) levels were normalized in at least two consecutive assessments. Hypercortisolism was considered partially controlled when there was a 50% over-reduction in 24-h UFC and/or LNSC and/or DST levels but still above normal. A reduction lower than 50% in these parameters was considered as non-response. We also assessed the ketoconazole doses that resulted in 24-h UFC normalization, maximum dose, medication tolerance, adverse effects, and changes in liver, kidney, and biochemical function. Due to the characteristics of this study, these outcomes were periodically evaluated in all patient consultations, which occurred usually every 2 to 4 months. Data collection This retrospective cohort evaluated outpatient medical records and any tests indicated by the attending physician as a pragmatic study. Ketoconazole use followed the department’s care protocol, which is based on national and international guidelines (4), and all patients received a similar care routine: the recommended initial prescription was generally taken in two to six doses at 100 to 300 mg/day. It was then increased by 200 mg every 2 to 4 months until hypercortisolism was controlled or side effects developed, especially those related to liver function. The maximum prescription was 1,200 mg/day. Clinical follow-up of these patients was performed 30 days after starting the medication and every 2–4 months thereafter (23). Clinical, anthropometric, laboratory, and other exam data were collected through a review of the hospital’s electronic medical records for the entire follow-up period. Data from the first and last consultation were considered in the final analysis of all parameters. Statistical analysis Baseline population characteristics were described as mean and standard deviation (SD) or median with interquartile ranges (25–75) for continuous variables. The chi-square test was used to compare qualitative variables, and Student’s t-test or ANOVA was used to compare the quantitative variables. The Mann–Whitney U-test was used for unpaired data. P-values <0.05 were considered significant. Statistical analysis was performed in SPSS 18.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA) and R package geepack 1.3-1. Results Treatment with ketoconazole was indicated for 41 of the 172 CD patients. In 3/41 patients, ketoconazole was unallowed due to concomitant liver disease, and 38 received ketoconazole during CD treatment between 2004 and 2020. Of these, five were excluded due to insufficient data to determine the response to ketoconazole (short treatment time, irregular follow-up, incomplete medical records, or lost to follow-up). The baseline characteristics of every sample are shown in Table 1. Thus, 33/41 patients were included in the final analysis. The patients were predominantly women (84.2%) and white (89.5%); 11 had microadenoma, 15 had macroadenoma, and 11 had no adenoma visualized. In 12/33 patients, pituitary imaging was not performed immediately before starting ketoconazole. Hypertension was observed in 26 patients (78%) and DM in 12 patients (36%). The mean age at CD diagnosis was 31.7 years. Table 1 TABLE 1 Baseline clinical data of Cushing’s disease patients treated with ketoconazole. Of the 33 patients with complete data, 26 (78%) underwent TSS prior to starting ketoconazole, five of whom (15%) had also undergone radiotherapy. Thus, seven patients used ketoconazole as primary treatment since performing a surgical procedure was impossible at that time. Of these, four had no response to ketoconazole, one had a partial response, and two had a complete response. At follow-up, four of these patients underwent their first TSS, and three continued the ketoconazole therapy, achieving full UFC control. Among those who used ketoconazole after TSS (n = 26), 20 had a complete response, two had a partial response, and four had no response. Figure 1 shows the study flow chart and patient distribution throughout the treatment. Figure 1 FIGURE 1 Flowchart of ketoconazole treatment in Cushing's disease patients. Individual patient data are described in Table 2. The duration of ketoconazole use ranged from 14 days (in one patient who used it pre-TSS) to 14.5 years. The total follow-up time of the 22 patients with controlled CD ranged from 3 months to 14.5 years, with a mean of 5.33 years and a median of 4.8 years. Table 2 TABLE 2 Individual data. Therapeutic response Relative therapeutic response data are described in Table 3. Patients whose hypercortisolism was controlled or partially controlled with ketoconazole had lower baseline 24-h UFC than the uncontrolled group [times above the upper limit of normal: 0.62 (SD, 0.41) vs. 5.3 (SD, 8.21); p < 0.005, respectively], in addition to more frequent prior TSS (p < 0.04). In some patients (4/33), 24-h UFC was in the normal range at the beginning of ketoconazole therapy, but they were prescribed with the medication due to the clinical recurrence of CD associated to cortisol non-suppression after 1 mg dexamethasone overnight and/or abnormal midnight salivary or serum cortisol. Table 3 TABLE 3 Baseline characteristics of Cushing’s disease patients according to therapeutic response to ketoconazole. Figure 2 shows that the prevalence of uncontrolled patients remained stable over time (approximately 30%) despite dose adjustments or association with other drugs, which led to no differences. When analyzing only the results of the last follow-up visit (eliminating fluctuations during follow-up), 22 patients had a complete response (66%), three patients had a partial response (9%), and eight patients had no response to ketoconazole treatment (24%), which includes patients who underwent radiotherapy during ketoconazole treatment. Figure 2 FIGURE 2 Prevalence of controlled hypercortisolism during follow-up of Cushing's disease patients treatesd with ketoconazole. During follow-up, no significant differences were found in blood pressure control or in dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, cortisol, ACTH, or glucose levels. Worsening of hypertension control was observed in association with hypokalemia in some cases, as described in side effects. The ketoconazole doses ranged from 100 to 1,200 mg per day, and there were no significant dose or response differences between the groups (Table 4). Figure 3 shows the patients, their dosages, and 24-h UFC control at the first and last consultation, showing a trend toward hypercortisolism reduction in approximately 70% of the cohort (25 of 33). Only four patients used doses lower than 300 mg at the end of follow-up. One of them used before TSS and suspended its use after surgery. One patient, who has already undergone radiotherapy, discontinued ketoconazole due to intolerance, despite adequate control of hypercortisolism. Another one, who had also undergone radiotherapy, was lost to follow-up when it was controlled using 100 mg daily, and one remained controlled using 200 mg, without previous radiotherapy. Table 4 TABLE 4 Final dose of ketoconazole used in patients with Cushing’s disease. Figure 3 FIGURE 3 First and last consultation 24çhour UFC results vs. ketoconazole dosage in Cushing's disease patients. Side effects Regarding adverse effects (Table 5), there was no significant difference between the controlled/partially controlled group and the uncontrolled group regarding liver enzyme changes or drug intolerance. Mild adverse effects, including nausea, vomiting, dizziness, and loss of appetite, occurred in 10 patients (30%). Only four patients had serious adverse effects that warranted discontinuing the medication. In two cases, ketoconazole was discontinued due to a significantly acute increase in liver enzymes (drug-induced hepatitis) during the use of 400 and 800 mg of ketoconazole. Non-significant elevation of transaminases (up to three times the normal value) was observed in three cases. A slight increase in gamma-glutamyltransferase occurred in six patients. In these nine patients with elevated liver markers, the daily dose ranged from 400 to 1,200 mg. None of those with mild increases in liver markers needed to discontinue ketoconazole. Table 5 TABLE 5 Adverse effects of ketoconazole in Cushing’s disease patients treated with ketoconazole. One female patient developed pseudotumor cerebri syndrome, which was treated with acetazolamide. She did not need to discontinue ketoconazole, having used it for more than 10 years without new side effects and achieving complete control of hypercortisolism (24). Another patient became pregnant during follow-up while using the medication, but no maternal or fetal complications occurred (25). Hypokalemia was also observed during follow-up. Twenty episodes of reduced potassium levels occurred in 10 patients over the course of treatment. Of these episodes, six occurred in controlled patients, three in partially controlled patients, and 11 in uncontrolled patients (Table 6). The hypokalemia was managed with spironolactone (25 to 100 mg) and oral potassium supplementation. Table 6 TABLE 6 Characteristics of Cushing’s disease patients who developed hypokalemia during ketoconazole treatment. Ketoconazole and associations Of the patients who used an association of cabergoline and ketoconazole, one did so since the beginning of follow-up, while another nine were prescribed cabergoline during follow-up due to non-response to ketoconazole alone. Of these 10 patients, two did not start the medication due to problems in obtaining the drug. Thus, in two of the nine patients on the maximum tolerated dose of ketoconazole or who could not tolerate a higher dose due to hepatic enzymatic changes, 1.5–4.5 mg of cabergoline per week was associated. In patients not controlled with ketoconazole plus cabergoline, mitotane (two patients) or pasireotide (two patients) was added. Only two of nine patients responded to the combination of cabergoline and ketoconazole. Data on these associations are shown in Table 7. Table 7 TABLE 7 Effects of associating cabergoline with ketoconazole in Cushing’s disease patients. Considering that one of the indications for the treatment of hypercortisolism may be complementary to radiotherapy, we analyzed the eight patients who underwent radiotherapy after transsphenoidal surgery. In these patients, doses of ketoconazole from 200 to 1,200 mg were used, and in six patients there was a normalization of the UFC in 1 to 60 months of treatment. Thus, the association of ketoconazole with radiotherapy was effective in normalizing the 24-h UFC in 75% of cases. Clinical follow-up New therapeutic approaches were attempted in some patients during follow-up: radiotherapy (eight patients), new TSS (five patients), and bilateral adrenalectomy (four patients). At the end of this analysis, 11 patients remained on ketoconazole, all with controlled hypercortisolism. Among the 11 patients who were not fully controlled by the last visit, five were using ketoconazole as pre-TSS therapy and underwent TSS as soon as possible, while three others underwent radiotherapy and two underwent bilateral adrenalectomy. One patient was lost to follow-up. Discussion According to the current consensus about CD, drug treatment should be reserved for patients without remission after TSS, those who cannot undergo surgical treatment, or those awaiting the effects of radiotherapy (4, 16). Drugs available in this context may act as adrenal steroidogenesis blockers (ketoconazole, osilodrostat, metyrapone, mitotane, levoketoconazole, and etomidate), in pituitary adenoma (somatostatinergic receptor ligands—pasireotide), dopamine receptor agonists (cabergoline), or glucocorticoid receptor blockers (mifepristone) (16, 26). Among these alternatives, the drug of choice still cannot be determined. Thus, the best option must be established individually, considering aspects such as remission potential, safety profile, availability, cost, etc. (16, 27, 28). For over 30 years, ketoconazole has been prescribed off-label for CD patients with varied rates of remission of hypercortisolism, and it can be used in monotherapy or associated with other drugs (29, 30). The Brazilian public health system does not provide drugs for the treatment of CD, and among medications with a better profile for controlling hypercortisolism, such as osilodrostat, levoketoconazole, and pasireotide, only pasireotide has been approved by the national regulatory authority (ANVISA). Due to such pragmatic considerations, ketoconazole is among the most commonly used drugs in our health system, whether recently associated or not with cabergoline (7). In this cohort, the most prevalent response type was complete (66%). Since 75% of the CD patients who used ketoconazole had a complete or partial response, there was a clear trend towards improvement in hypercortisolism. When only those who used ketoconazole post-TSS were evaluated, the rate of control increased to 76%. We found that patients with a higher initial 24-h UFC tended to have less control of excess cortisol, a difference that was not observed when analyzing ketoconazole dose or follow-up time. In our series and at the prescribed doses, the combination of cabergoline and ketoconazole was not effective in the management of hypercortisolism since only two of nine patients (22%) had their 24-hour UFC normalized. However, it should be observed that this association was used in patients who had more severe CD and, consequently, were less likely to have a favorable response. The effects of cabergoline in CD patients remain controversial, although some studies have shown promising responses (31, 32). Previous reviews found that the efficacy of ketoconazole for hypercortisolism control was quite heterogeneous, ranging from 14 to 100% in 99 patients (33, 34). Our cohort’s response rate was lower than that of Sonino et al. (89%) (20) but higher than that of a multicenter cohort by Castinetti et al. (approximately 50%) (14). Regarding other smaller series (35–37) our results reinforce some findings that demonstrate a percentage of control greater than 50% of the cases. Our analyses showed a trend toward a response that continued, with some oscillations, over time. The rate of uncontrolled patients remained stable over time (approximately 30%), regardless of association with other drugs (cabergoline, mitotane, or pasireotide) or dose adjustments. Speculatively, it would appear that patients who respond to ketoconazole treatment would show some type of response as soon as therapy begins. Our cohort has the longest follow-up time of any study on ketoconazole use in CD, nearly 15 years. Our results demonstrate that patients who benefit from ketoconazole (i.e., control of hypercortisolism and associated comorbidities) can safely use it for a long term since those who did not experience liver enzyme changes at the beginning of treatment also had no long-term changes. Another relevant information for clinical practice is the result of treatment with ketoconazole associated with radiotherapy, which demonstrated normalizing the 24-h UFC in 75% of cases, a finding that reinforces the use of this therapeutic combination, especially in cases that are more resistant to different treatment modalities. As described in the literature, adverse effects, such as nausea, vomiting, dizziness, headache, loss of appetite, and elevated transaminases, are relatively frequent (38). In our cohort, 10 patients (30%) had mild adverse effects, and four (12%) had more serious adverse effects requiring discontinuation. In other studies, up to 20% of patients required discontinuation due to side effects (14). We documented 20 episodes of hypokalemia during ketoconazole treatment, some with worsening blood pressure control. In most cases, hypokalemia has occurred in association with the use of diuretic drugs, which may have potentiated potassium spoliation, reinforcing the need of stringent surveillance in hypertensive Cushing’s disease patients using this combination. It can also result from the enzymatic blockade that could lead to the elevation of adrenal mineralocorticoid precursors (pex. deoxycorticosterone), with consequent sodium retention and worsening hypertension. Although it has not been analyzed in other series with ketoconazole, this side effect has been observed in patients who received other adrenal-blocking drugs, such as osilodrostat and metyrapone (16). This alteration seems to be transient in some patients; in our series, it was managed by suspending drugs that could worsen hypokalemia and introducing spironolactone and/or potassium supplementation. Hypokalemia may also result from continuing intense adrenal stimulation by ACTH and changes in the activity of the 11-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase enzyme, which increase the mineralocorticoid activity of cortisol, as observed in patients with severe hypercortisolism in uncontrolled CD (39). Hypogonadism occurred in one male patient. In two adolescent patients (one female and one male), hypercortisolism was effectively controlled without altering the progression of puberty. As described in other cohorts, this effect was expected due to the high doses, which block adrenal and testicular androgen production (20). Thus, our findings confirm previous reports in the literature and add important information about the side effects and safety of long-term ketoconazole use in CD treatment. Our data reinforce the current recommendations about ketoconazole for recurrent cases or those refractory to surgery, including proper follow-up by an experienced team specializing in evaluating clinical and biochemical responses and potential adverse effects (7, 18, 40). Despite the severity of many of our CD patients, no ketoconazole-related death occurred during follow-up, including long-term observation. On the other hand, no patient progressed to definitive remission of hypercortisolism, even after many years of treatment with ketoconazole. Conclusions In our cohort of patients, ketoconazole proved to be an effective and safe alternative for CD treatment, although it can produce side effects that require proper identification and management, allowing effective long-term treatment. We found side effects that have been rarely described in the literature, including hypokalemia and worsening hypertension, which require specific care and management. Thus, ketoconazole is an effective alternative for CD patients who cannot undergo surgery, who do not achieve remission after pituitary surgery, or who have recurrent hypercortisolism. Data availability statement The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors without undue reservation. Ethics statement The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre Research Ethics Committee. Written informed consent for participation was not required for this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements. Author contributions CV and MAC created the research format. CV, RBM, and MCBC realized the search on medical records. CV performed the statistical analysis. MAC, ACVM, and TCR participated in the final data review and discussion. ACVM participated in the final data review and discussion as volunteer collaborator. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version. Funding This work was supported by the “Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nı́vel Superior” (CAPES), Ministry of Health - Brazil, through a PhD scholarship; and the Research Incentive Fund (FIPE) of Hospital de Clı́nicas de Porto Alegre. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the HCPA Research and Graduate Studies Group (GPPG) for the statistical technical support provided by Rogério Borges. We also thank the Research Incentive Fund of Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre and Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES), by funds applied. We also thank the Graduate Program in Endocrinology and Metabolism (PPGEndo UFRGS) for all the support in the preparation of this research. Conflict of interest The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. 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Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab (2021) 35(1):101490. doi: 10.1016/j.beem.2021.101490 PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar Keywords: Cushing’s disease, Cushing’s syndrome, hypercortisolism, treatment, ketoconazole Citation: Viecceli C, Mattos ACV, Costa MCB, Melo RBd, Rodrigues TdC and Czepielewski MA (2022) Evaluation of ketoconazole as a treatment for Cushing’s disease in a retrospective cohort. Front. Endocrinol. 13:1017331. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2022.1017331 Received: 11 August 2022; Accepted: 06 September 2022; Published: 07 October 2022. Edited by: Luiz Augusto Casulari, University of Brasilia, Brazil Reviewed by: Juliana Drummond, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil Monalisa Azevedo, University of Brasilia, Brazil Copyright © 2022 Viecceli, Mattos, Costa, Melo, Rodrigues and Czepielewski. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. *Correspondence: Mauro Antonio Czepielewski, maurocze@terra.com.br Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher. From https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fendo.2022.1017331/full

Abstract Background Endoscopic endonasal surgery is the main transsphenoidal approach for pituitary surgery in many centers, however few studies compare the endoscopic and microscopic surgical approach with regard to long-term follow-up. This single-center study aimed to compare the two techniques over 15 years. Methods Medical records and magnetic resonance images from 40 patients with primary transsphenoidal surgery for Cushing’s disease at Sahlgrenska University Hospital between 2003 and 2018 were reviewed. Fourteen patients who underwent microscopic surgery and 26 patients who underwent endoscopic surgery were included in this study. Results In the microscopic group, 12 of 14 patients achieved endocrine remission, compared to 19 of 26 patients in the endoscopic group (n. s.). Three patients in each group developed a late recurrence. Complications were seen in 5 patients in the microscopic group and in 8 patients in the endoscopic group (n. s.). No serious complications, such as carotid artery damage, cerebrovascular fluid leakage, epistaxis, or meningitis, occurred in any group. The postoperative hospital stay was shorter in the endoscopic than the microscopic group. Conclusion Endoscopic endonasal surgery for Cushing’s disease showed no difference in remission, recurrence, and complication rates compared to the microscopic approach. The endoscopic group had a shorter postoperative hospital stay than the microscopic group, which in part may be due to the minimal invasiveness of the endoscopic approach. References (0) Cited by (0) Recommended articles (6) Research article Identifying obstructive sleep apnea in patients with epilepsy: A cross-sectional multicenter study Seizure, Volume 100, 2022, pp. 87-94 Show abstract Research article Nursing Home Characteristics Associated with High and Low Levels of Antipsychotic, Benzodiazepine, and Opioid Prescribing to Residents with Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Dementias: A Cross-Sectional Analysis Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 2022 Show abstract Research article Association between sensory impairments and restricted social participation in older adults: A cross-sectional study Collegian, 2022 Show abstract Research article Percutaneous Intervertebral-Vacuum Polymethylmethacrylate Injection for Foraminal Stenosis with Degenerative Lumbar Scoliosis World Neurosurgery, 2022 Show abstract Research article Predictors of Emergency Department service outcome for people brought in by police: A retrospective cohort study International Emergency Nursing, Volume 63, 2022, Article 101188 Show abstract Research article Interdisciplinary Care Coordination in Chronic Viral Hepatitis C The Journal for Nurse Practitioners, 2022 Show abstract Conflicts of interest The authors have no conflicts of interest. Author statements Conceptualization: D. Farahmand, E. Backlund, O. Ragnarsson and P. Trimpou Data curation: Dan Farahmand, Erica Backlund, J. Carlqvist, T. Skoglund, T. Hallén, O. Ragnarsson, P. Trimpou. Formal Analysis: D. Farahmand, E. Backlund Funding acquisition: D. Farahmand Investigation: D. Farahmand, E. Backlund, O. Ragnarsson and P. Trimpou Methodology: D. Farahmand, E. Backlund, O. Ragnarsson and P. Trimpou Project administration: D. Farahmand, E. Backlund, O. Ragnarsson and P. Trimpou Supervision: D. Farahmand Writing – original draft: Penelope Trimpou Writing – review & editing: E. Backlund, O. Ragnarsson, T. Skoglund, T. Hallén, G. Gudnadottir, J. Carlqvist and D. Farahmand. View full text From https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1878875022009640

Abstract Cushing's disease causes numerous metabolic disorders, cognitive decline, and sarcopenia, leading to deterioration of the general health in older individuals. Cushing's disease can be treated with transsphenoidal surgery, but thus far, surgery has often been avoided in older patients. We herein report an older woman with Cushing's disease whose cognitive impairment and sarcopenia improved after transsphenoidal surgery. Although cognitive impairment and sarcopenia in most older patients show resistance to treatment, our case indicates that normalization of the cortisol level by transsphenoidal surgery can be effective in improving the cognitive impairment and muscle mass loss caused by Cushing's disease. References (27) 1. Lindholm J, Juul S, Jorgensen JO, et al. Incidence and late prognosis of Cushing's syndrome: a population-based study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86: 117-123, 2001. 2. Starkman MN. Neuropsychiatric findings in Cushing syndrome and exogenous glucocorticoid administration. Endocrinol Metab Clin N Am 42: 477-488, 2013. 3. Chen YF, Li YF, Chen X, Sun QF. Neuropsychiatric disorders and cognitive dysfunction in patients with Cushing's disease. CMJ 26: 3156-3160, 2013. 4. Priego T, Martín AI, González-Hedström D, Granado M, López-Calderón A. Role of hormones in sarcopenia. Vitam Horm 115: 535-570, 2021. 5. Grossman R, Mukherjee D, Chaichana KL, et al. Complications and death among elderly patients undergoing pituitary tumour surgery. Clin Endocrinol 73: 361-368, 2010. 6. Tiemensma J, Kokshoom NE, Biermasz NR, et al. Subtle cognitive impairments in patients with long-term cure of Cushing's disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 95: 2699-2714, 2010. 7. Brunetti A, Fulham MJ, Aloj L, et al. Decreased brain glucose utilization in patients with Cushing's disease. J Nucl Med 39: 786-790, 1998. 8. Liu S, Wang Y, Xu K, et al. Brain glucose metabolism is associated with hormone level in Cushing's disease: A voxel-based study using FDG-PET. Neuroimage Clin 12: 415-419, 2016. 9. Cheng H, Gao L, Hou B, et al. Reversibility of The cerebral blood flow in Patients with Cushing's Disease after Surgery Treatment. Metabolism 104: 154050, 2020. 10. Forget H, Lacroix A, Somma M, Cohen H. Cognitive decline in patients with Cushing's syndrome. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 6: 20-29, 2000. 11. Kim KJ, Filosa JA. Advanced in vitro approach to study neurovascular coupling mechanisms in the brain microcirculation. J Physiol 590: 1757-1770, 2012. 12. McEwen BS, Bowles NP, Gray JD, et al. Mechanisms of stress in the brain. Nat Neurosci 18: 1353-1363, 2015. 13. Rajkowska G, Miguel-Hidalgo JJ. Gliogenesis and glial pathology in depression. CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets 6: 219-233, 2007. 14. Iuchi T, Akaike M, Mitsui T, et al. Glucocorticoid excess induces superoxide production in vascular endothelial cells and elicits vascular endothelial dysfunction. Circ Res 92: 81-87, 2003. 15. Cheng H, Gao L, Hou B, et al. Reversibility of the cerebral blood flow in patients with Cushing's disease after surgery treatment. Metabolism 104: 154050, 2020. 16. Frimodt-Møller KE, Møllegaard Jepsen JR, Feldt-Rasmussen U, et al. Hippocampal volume, cognitive functions, depression, anxiety, and quality of life in patients with Cushing syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 104: 4563-4577, 2019. 17. Siegel S, Kirstein CF, Grzywotz A, et al. Neuropsychological functioning in patients with cushing's disease and Cushing's syndrome. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 129: 194-202, 2021. 18. Chow Y, Masiak J, Mikołajewska E, et al. Limbic brain structures and burnout-A systematic review. Adv Med Sci 63: 192-198, 2018. 19. Starkman MN, Gebarski SS, Berent S, Schteingart DE. Hippocampal formation volume, memory dysfunction, and cortisol levels in patients with Cushing's syndrome. Biol Psychiatry 32: 756-765, 1992. 20. Goldberg AL, Tischler M, Demartina G, Griffin G. Hormonal regulation of protein degradation and synthesis in skeletal muscle. Fed Proc 39: 31-36, 1980. 21. Miller BS, Ignatoski KM, Daignault S, et al. A quantitative tool to assess degree of sarcopenia objectively in patients with hypercortisolism. Surgery 150: 1178-1185, 2011. 22. Delivanis D, Iñiguez-Ariza N, Zeb M, et al. Impact of hypercortisolism on skeletal muscle mass and adipose tissue mass in patients with adrenal adenomas. Clin Endocrinol 88: 209-216, 2018. 23. Kim JH, Kwak MK, Ahn SH, et al. Alteration in skeletal muscle mass in women with subclinical hypercortisolism. Endocrine 61: 134-143, 2018. 24. Gonzalez Rodriguez E, Marques-Vidal P, Aubry-Rozier B, et al. Diurnal salivary cortisol in sarcopenic postmenopausal women: the OsteoLaus Cohort. Calcif Tissue Int 109: 499-509, 2021. 25. Pivonello R, Fleseriu M, Newell-Price J, et al. Efficacy and safety of osilodrostat in patients with Cushing's disease (LINC 3): a multicentre phase III study with a double-blind, randomised withdrawal phase. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 8: 748-761, 2020. 26. Lau D, Rutledge C, Aghi MK. Cushing's disease: current medical therapies and molecular insights guiding future therapies. Neurosurg Focus 38: E11, 2015. 27. Villar-Taibo R, Díaz-Ortega C, Sifontes-Dubo M, et al. Pituitary surgery in elderly patients: a safe and effective procedure. Endocrine 2: 814-822, 2021. From https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/internalmedicine/advpub/0/advpub_8326-21/_article

Abstract Context Arginine-vasopressin and CRH act synergistically to stimulate secretion of ACTH. There is evidence that glucocorticoids act via negative feedback to suppress arginine-vasopressin secretion. Objective Our hypothesis was that a postoperative increase in plasma copeptin may serve as a marker of remission of Cushing disease (CD). Design Plasma copeptin was obtained in patients with CD before and daily on postoperative days 1 through 8 after transsphenoidal surgery. Peak postoperative copeptin levels and Δcopeptin values were compared among those in remission vs no remission. Results Forty-four patients (64% female, aged 7-55 years) were included, and 19 developed neither diabetes insipidus (DI) or syndrome of inappropriate anti-diuresis (SIADH). Thirty-three had follow-up at least 3 months postoperatively. There was no difference in peak postoperative copeptin in remission (6.1 pmol/L [4.3-12.1]) vs no remission (7.3 pmol/L [5.4-8.4], P = 0.88). Excluding those who developed DI or SIADH, there was no difference in peak postoperative copeptin in remission (10.2 pmol/L [6.9-21.0]) vs no remission (5.4 pmol/L [4.6-7.3], P = 0.20). However, a higher peak postoperative copeptin level was found in those in remission (14.6 pmol/L [±10.9] vs 5.8 (±1.4), P = 0.03]) with parametric testing. There was no difference in the Δcopeptin by remission status. Conclusions A difference in peak postoperative plasma copeptin as an early marker to predict remission of CD was not consistently present, although the data point to the need for a larger sample size to further evaluate this. However, the utility of this test may be limited to those who develop neither DI nor SIADH postoperatively. Cushing disease, copeptin, cortisol, remission Issue Section: Clinical Research Article Arginine vasopressin (AVP) and CRH act synergistically as the primary stimuli for secretion of ACTH, leading to release of cortisol [1, 2]. The role of AVP in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is via release from the parvocellular neurons of the paraventricular nuclei (and possibly also from the magnocellular neurons of the paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei), the secretion of which is stimulated by stress [3-6]. AVP release results in both independent stimulation of ACTH release and potentiation of the effects of CRH [3, 7-9]. Additionally, there is evidence that glucocorticoids act by way of negative feedback to suppress AVP secretion [10, 11-20]. Further, parvocellular neurons of the hypothalamic paraventricular nuclei have been shown to increase AVP production and neurosecretory granule size after adrenalectomy, and inappropriately elevated plasma AVP has been reported in the setting of adrenal insufficiency with normalization of plasma AVP after glucocorticoid administration [21-24]. This relationship of AVP and its effect on the HPA axis has been used in the diagnostic evaluation of Cushing syndrome (CS) [14] and evaluation of remission after transsphenoidal surgery (TSS) in Cushing disease (CD) by administration of desmopressin [25]. Copeptin makes up the C-terminal portion of the AVP precursor pre-pro-AVP. Copeptin is released from the posterior pituitary in stoichiometric amounts with AVP, and because of its longer half-life in circulation, it is a stable surrogate marker of AVP secretion [26-28]. Plasma copeptin has been studied in various conditions of the anterior pituitary. In a study by Lewandowski et al, plasma copeptin was measured after administration of CRH in assessment of HPA-axis function in patients with a variety of pituitary diseases. An increase in plasma copeptin was observed only in healthy subjects but not in those with pituitary disease who had an appropriately stimulated serum cortisol, and the authors concluded that copeptin may be a sensitive marker to reveal subtle alterations in the regulation of pituitary function [7]. Although in this study and others, plasma copeptin was assessed after pituitary surgery, it has not, to the best of our knowledge, been studied as a marker of remission of CD before and after pituitary surgery [7, 29]. In this study, plasma copeptin levels were assessed as a surrogate of AVP secretion before and after TSS for treatment of CD. Because there is evidence that glucocorticoids exert negative feedback on AVP, we hypothesized that there would be a greater postoperative increase in plasma copeptin in those with CD in remission after TSS resulting from resolution of hypercortisolemia and resultant hypocortisolemia compared with those not in remission with persistent hypercortisolemia and continued negative feedback. In other words, we hypothesized that an increase in copeptin could be an early marker of remission of CD after TSS. We aimed to complete this assessment by comparison of the peak postoperative copeptin and change in copeptin from preoperative to peak postoperative copeptin for those in remission vs not in remission postoperatively. Subjects and Methods Subjects Adult and pediatric patients with CD who presented at the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development under protocol 97-CH-0076 and underwent TSS between March 2016 and July 2019 were included in the study. Exclusion criteria included a prior TSS within 6 weeks of the preoperative plasma copeptin sample or a preoperative diagnosis of diabetes insipidus, renal disease, or cardiac failure. Written informed consent was provided by patients aged 18 years and older and by legal guardians for patients aged < 18 years to participate in this study. Written informed assent was provided by patients aged 7 years to < 18 years. The 97-CH-0076 study (Investigation of Pituitary Tumors and Related Hypothalamic Disorders) has been approved by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development institutional review board. Clinical and Biochemical Data Clinical data were extracted from electronic medical records. Age, sex, body weight, body mass index (BMI), pubertal stage (in pediatric patients only), and history of prior TSS were obtained preoperatively during the admission for TSS. Clinical data obtained postoperatively included TSS date, histology, development of central diabetes insipidus (DI) or (SIADH), time from TSS to most recent follow-up, and clinical remission status at postoperative follow-up. Preoperatively, serum sodium, 24-hour urinary free cortisol (UFC), UFC times the upper limit of normal (UFC × ULN), midnight (MN) serum cortisol, MN plasma ACTH, and 8 AM plasma ACTH were collected. Postoperatively, serum sodium, serum and urine osmolality, urine specific gravity, serum cortisol, and plasma ACTH were collected. For serum cortisol values < 1 mcg/dL, a value of 0.5 mcg/dL was assigned for the analyses; for plasma ACTH levels < 5 pg/mL, a value of 2.5 pg/mL was assigned. Additionally, plasma copeptin levels were obtained preoperatively and on postoperative days (PODs) 1 through 8 after TSS at 8:00 AM. Peak postoperative copeptin was the highest plasma copeptin on PODs 1 through 8. The delta copeptin (Δcopeptin) was determined by subtracting the preoperative copeptin from the peak postoperative copeptin; hence, a positive change indicated a postoperative increase in plasma copeptin. Plasma copeptin was measured using an automated immunofluorescent sandwich assay on the BRAHMS Kryptor Compact PLUS Copeptin-proAVP. The limit of detection for the assay was 1.58 pmol/L, 5.7% intra-assay coefficient of variation, and 11.2% inter-assay coefficient of variation, with a lower limit of analytical measurement of 2.8 pmol/L. For those with multiple preoperative plasma copeptin values within days before surgery, an average of preoperative copeptin levels was used for analyses. Diagnosis of CD was based on guidelines published by the Endocrine Society and as previously described for the adult and pediatric populations [30, 31]; diagnosis was further confirmed by either histologic identification of an ACTH-secreting pituitary adenoma in the resected tumor specimen, decrease in cortisol and ACTH levels postoperatively, and/or clinical remission after TSS at follow-up evaluation. All patients were treated with TSS at the National Institutes of Health Clinical Center by the same neurosurgeon. Remission after surgical therapy was based on serum cortisol of < 5 μg/dL during the immediate postoperative period, improvement of clinical signs and symptoms of cortisol excess at postoperative follow up, nonelevated 24-hour UFC at postoperative follow-up, nonelevated midnight serum cortisol at postoperative follow up when available, and continued requirement for glucocorticoid replacement at 3 to 6 months’ postoperative follow-up. Diagnosis of SIADH was based on development of hyponatremia (serum sodium < 135 mmol/L) and oliguria (urine output < 0.5 mL/kg/h). Diagnosis of DI was determined by development of hypernatremia (serum sodium > 145 mmol/L), dilute polyuria (urine output > 4 mL/kg/h), elevated serum osmolality, and low urine osmolality. Statistical Analyses Results are presented as median (interquartile range [IQR], calculated as 25th percentile-75th percentile) or mean ± SD, as appropriate, and frequency (percentage). Where appropriate, we compared results using parametric or nonparametric testing; however, the median (IQR) and the mean ± SD were both reported to allow for comparisons with the appropriate testing noted. Subgroup analyses were completed comparing those who developed water balance disorders included patients who developed DI only (but not SIADH), those who developed SIADH only (but not DI), and those with no water balance disorder; hence, for these subgroup analyses, those who developed both DI and SIADH postoperatively (n = 4) were excluded. Preoperative copeptin, peak postoperative copeptin, and Δcopeptin were compared between those with and without remission at follow-up, using either t test or Wilcoxon rank-sum test, depending on the distribution of data. These were done in all patients combined, as well as within each subgroup. The same tests were used for comparing other continuous variables (eg, age, BMI SD score [SDS], cortisol excess measures) between those with and without remission. Categorical data (eg, sex, Tanner stage) were analyzed using the Fisher exact test. Comparisons of copeptin levels among the subgroups (DI, SIADH, neither) were carried out using mixed models and the Kruskal-Wallis test, as appropriate. Post hoc pairwise comparisons were adjusted for multiplicity using the Bonferroni correction, and as applicable, only corrected P values are reported. Mixed models for repeated measures also analyzed copeptin, serum sodium, and cortisol data for PODs 1 through 8. In addition, maximum likelihood estimation (GENMOD) procedures analyzed the effects of copeptin and serum sodium on the remission at follow-up. Correlation analyses were done with Spearman ρ. All analyses were tested for the potential confounding effects of age, sex, BMI SDS, and pubertal status, and were adjusted accordingly. For plasma copeptin reported as < 2.8 pmol/L, a value of 1.4 pmol/L (midpoint of 0 and 2.8 pmol/L) was used; sensitivity analyses repeated all relevant comparisons using the threshold limit of 2.8 pmol/L instead of 1.4 pmol/L. Odds ratios (OR) and 95% CIs, other magnitudes of the effect, data variability, and 2-sided P values provided the statistical evidence for the conclusions. Statistical analyses were performed in SAS version 9.4 software (SAS Institute, Inc, Cary, NC). Results Patient Characteristics Forty-four adult and pediatric patients, aged 7 to 55 years (77.2% were < 18 years old), with CD were included in the study. The cohort included 28 female patients (64%), and the median BMI SDS was 2.2 (1.1-2.5). Thirty-four percent (15/44) had prior pituitary surgery (none within the prior 6 weeks). Seventy-five percent (33/44) had postoperative follow-up evaluations available, with median follow-up of 13.5 months (11.3-16.0). Of those 33 patients, 85% were determined to be in remission at follow-up. Comparing those in remission vs no remission, there was no difference in age, sex, BMI SDS, pubertal status (in pediatric ages only), preoperative measures of cortisol excess (UFC × ULN, PM serum cortisol, MN plasma ACTH, AM plasma ACTH), duration of follow-up, or development of DI or SIADH. There was a lower postoperative serum cortisol nadir in those in remission at follow-up compared with those not in remission at follow-up, as expected, because a postoperative serum cortisol < 5 μg/dL was included in defining remission status. Postoperatively, 8/44 (18%) developed DI, 13/44 (30%) developed SIADH, 4/44 (9%) developed both DI and SIADH, and 19/44 (43%) developed no water balance disorder (Table 1). There were no differences by remission status when assessing these subgroups (ie, DI, SIADH, and no water balance disorder) separately. Table 1. Demographic and clinical characteristics of subjects All subjects, n = 44 All subjects by remission status, n = 33 All subjects by remission status, excluding those with DI or SIADH, n = 13 Remission, n = 28 No remission, n = 5 P Remission, n = 10 No remission, n = 3 P Age, median (range), y 14.5 (7-55) 17.4 ± 10.7 14.5 (12.5-17.5) 15.6 ± 13.2 11.0 (9.0-12.0) 0.11 13.7 ± 3.1 14.0 (13.0-15.0) 19.7 ± 16.8 11.0 (9.0-39.0) 0.60a Sex  Female 28 (64%) 22 (78.6%) 3 (60.0%) 0.57 9 (90.0%) 2 (66.7%) 0.42 BMI SDS 2.2 (1.1-2.5) 1.7 ± 1.0 2.0 (0.9-2.5) 2.2 ± 0.4 2.2 (2.1-2.3) 0.70 1.7 ± 1.1 2.0 (0.7-2.5) 2.0 ± 0.4 2.1 (1.5-2.3) 0.65a Pubertal status Female (n = 19) (n = 15) (n = 2) 0.51 (n = 8) (n = 1) 0.44   Tanner 1-2 6 4 (26.7%) 1 (50.0%) 3 (37.5%) 1 (25.0%)   Tanner 3-5 13 11 (73.3%) 1 (50.0%) 5 (62.5%) 0 Male (n = 14) (n = 5) (n = 2) (n = 1) (n = 1) --- Testicular volume < 12, mL 10 4 (80.0%) 2 (10.00%) 1 (100.0%) 1 (100.0%) Testicular volume ≥ 12, mL 4 1 (20.0%) 0 1.0 0 0 Preoperative UFC ULN 3.3 (1.2-6.1) 4.9 ± 6.1 2.6 (1.0-7.6) 3.2 ± 1.3 3.7 (3.0-3.9) 0.70 7.2 ± 8.4 3.9 (1.8-9.1) 3.8 ± 0.7 3.9 (3.0-4.4) 0.93 Preoperative PM cortisol 11.9 (9.2-14.8) 13.3 ± 4.7 12.2 (9.2-16.8) 10.8 ± 2.1 11.5 (9.0-11.6) 0.30 13.3 ± 6.0 11.2 (8.4-16.5) 11.1 ± 2.6 11.6 (8.3-13.6) 0.57a Preoperative MN ACTH 43.4 (29.3-51.6) 44.2 ± 25.5 46.1 (27.6-50.5) 40.9 ± 15.3 11.5 (9.0-11.6) 0.74 36.6 ± 16.6 37.4 (29.1-48.8) 34.0 ± 9.4 39.3 (23.1-39.5) 0.67 Preoperative AM ACTH 44.6 (31.4-60.5) 46.9 ± 28.9 44.0 (29.8-56.2) 48.6 ± 28.8 58.7 (21.7-60.5) 0.84 35.2 ± 16.2 40.3 (28.0-44.0) 45.4 ± 24.6 58.7 (17.0-60.5) 0.41a Postoperative cortisol nadir 0.5 (0.5-0.5) 0.7 ± 0.7 0.5 (0.5-0.5) 7.8 ± 6.6 5.2 (2.2-12.3) <0.001 0.6 ± 0.3 0.5 (0.5-0.5) 8.1 ± 7.9 5.2 (2.1-17.0) 0.003 Duration of follow-up 13.5 (11.3-16.0) 15.3 ± 7.9 14.0 (12.0-16.5) 14.0 ± 13.0 11.0 (6.0-14.0) 0.30 18.6 ± 11.2 15.5 (12.0-27.0) 16.7 ± 17.2 11.0 (3.0-36.0) 0.82a DI only 8 (18%) 7/8 (87.5%) 1/8 (12.5%) 0.91 --- --- --- SIADH only 13 (30%) 8/9 (88.9%) 1/9 (11.1%) Neither DI/SIADH 19 (43%) 10/13 (76.9%) 3/13 (23.1%) Both DI and SIADH 4 (9%) 3/3 (100%) 0/3 Demographic and clinical characteristics of all subjects (n = 44) with Cushing disease. Data are also presented by remission status for all subjects with postoperative follow-up (n = 33) and by remission status after excluding those who developed DI or SIADH postoperatively with postoperative follow-up (n = 13). Both median (IQR) and mean ± SD reported to allow for comparisons, with P value provided using appropriate testing depending on distribution of data sets. Data are mean ± SD, median (25th-75th IQR), or frequency (percentage) are reported, except for age, which is presented as median (range). Abbreviations: AM, 7:30-8 PM; BMI, body mass index; DI, diabetes insipidus; IQR, interquartile range; MN, midnight; N/A, not applicable; SDS, SD score; SIADH, syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis; UFC, urinary free cortisol; ULN, upper limit of normal. p-values below the threshold of 0.05 are in bold. aP value indicates comparison using parametric testing, as appropriate for normally distributed data. Open in new tab Preoperative copeptin levels were higher in males (7.0 pmol/L [5.1-9.6]) than in females (4.0 pmol/L [1.4-5.8], P = 0.004) (Fig. 1). Age was inversely correlated with preoperative copeptin (rs = -0.35, P = 0.030) and BMI SDS was positively correlated with preoperative copeptin (rs = 0.54, P < 0.001) (Fig. 2). Figure 1. Open in new tabDownload slide Preoperative plasma copeptin and sex. Preoperative plasma copeptin in all patients, comparing by sex. A higher preoperative plasma copeptin was found in males (7.0 pmol/L [5.1-9.6]) than in females (4.0 pmol/L [1.4-5.8], P = 0.004). Horizontal lines = median. Whiskers = 25th and 75th interquartile ranges. Figure 2. Open in new tabDownload slide Preoperative plasma copeptin and BMI SDS. Association of preoperative plasma copeptin and BMI SDS in all patients. A BMI SDS was positively associated with a preoperative plasma copeptin (rs = 0.54, P < 0.001). Shaded area = 95% confidence interval. Copeptin Before and After Transsphenoidal Surgery for CD Among the 33 patients with postoperative follow-up, there was no difference in peak postoperative copeptin for patients in remission vs those not in remission (6.1 pmol/L [4.3-12.1] vs 7.3 pmol/L [5.4-8.4], P = 0.88). There was also no difference in the Δcopeptin for those in remission vs not in remission (2.3 pmol/L [-0.5 to 8.2] vs 0.1 pmol/L [-0.1 to 2.2], P = 0.46) (Fig. 3). Including all subjects, the mean preoperative copeptin was 5.6 pmol/L (±3.4). For patients with follow-up, there was no difference in preoperative copeptin for those in remission (4.8 pmol/L [±2.9]) vs no remission (6.0 pmol/L [±2.0], P = 0.47). POD 1 plasma copeptin ranged from < 2.8 to 11.3 pmol/L. Figure 3. Open in new tabDownload slide (A) Peak postoperative plasma copeptin in all patients, comparing those in remission with no remission (6.1 pmol/L [4.3-12.1] vs 7.3 pmol/L [5.4-8.4], P = 0.88). (B) ΔCopeptin (preoperative plasma copeptin subtracted from postoperative peak plasma copeptin) in all patients, comparing those in remission with no remission (2.3 pmol/L [-0.5 to 8.2] vs 0.1 pmol/L [-0.1 to 2.2], P = 0.46). Horizontal lines = median. Whiskers = 25th and 75th interquartile ranges. When those who developed DI or SIADH were excluded, there was no difference in peak postoperative copeptin in those in remission vs no remission (10.2 pmol/L [6.9-21.0] vs 5.4 pmol/L [4.6-7.3], P = 0.20). However, because the distribution of the peak postoperative copeptins was borderline normally distributed, parametric testing was also completed for this analysis, which showed a higher peak postoperative copeptin in remission (14.6 pmol/L [±10.9]) vs no remission (5.8 [±1.4], P = 0.03). There was no difference in the Δcopeptin for those in remission vs not in remission (5.1 pmol/L [0.3-19.5] vs 1.1 pmol/L [-0.1 to 2.2], P = 0.39) (Fig. 4). Preoperative copeptin was not different for those in remission (4.7 pmol/L [±2.4]) vs no remission (4.9 pmol/L [±20.3], P = 0.91). There was no association between serum cortisol and plasma copeptin over time postoperatively (Fig. 5). Figure 4. Open in new tabDownload slide (A) Peak postoperative plasma copeptin excluding those who developed DI or SIADH, comparing those in remission with no remission (10.2 pmol/L [6.9-21.0] vs 5.4 pmol/L [4.6-7.3], P = 0.20). (B) ΔCopeptin (preoperative plasma copeptin subtracted from postoperative peak plasma copeptin) excluding those who developed DI or SIADH, comparing those in remission with no remission (5.1 pmol/L [0.3-19.5] vs 1.1 pmol/L [-0.1 to 2.2], P = 0.39). Horizontal lines = median. Whiskers = 25th and 75th interquartile ranges. Figure 5. Open in new tabDownload slide Plasma copeptin and serum cortisol vs postoperative day for patients who did not develop DI or SIADH. Plasma copeptin (indicated by closed circle) and serum cortisol (indicated by “x”). Results shown as (median, 95% CI). All analyses here were repeated adjusting for serum sodium, and there were no differences by remission status for preoperative, peak postoperative, or Δcopeptin for all subjects or after excluding those who developed a water balance disorder (data not shown). Copeptin and Water Balance Disorders As expected, peak postoperative copeptin appeared to be different among patients who developed DI, SIADH, and those without any fluid balance disorder (P = 0.029), whereas patients with DI had lower median peak postoperative copeptin (4.4 pmol/L [2.4-6.9]) than those who developed no fluid abnormality (10.0 pmol/L [5.4-16.5], P = 0.04), the statistical difference was not present after correction for multiple comparisons (P = 0.13). Peak postoperative copeptin of patients with SIADH was 9.4 pmol/L (6.5-10.4) and did not differ from patients with DI (P = 0.32) or those with no fluid abnormality (P = 1.0). There was a difference in Δcopeptin levels among these subgroups (overall P = 0.043), which appeared to be driven by the lower Δcopeptin in those who developed DI (-1.2 pmol/L [-2.6 to 0.1]) vs in those with neither DI or SIADH (3.1 pmol/L [0-9.6], P = 0.05). However, this pairwise comparison did not reach statistical significance, even before correction for multiple comparisons (P = 0.16) (Fig. 6). Preoperative copeptin levels were also not different among the subgroups (P = 0.54). Figure 6. Open in new tabDownload slide (A) Peak postoperative plasma copeptin, comparing those who developed DI, SIADH, or neither (P = 0.029 for comparison of all 3 groups). (B) ∆ Copeptin (preoperative plasma copeptin subtracted from postoperative peak plasma copeptin), comparing those who developed DI, SIADH, or neither (P = 0.043 for comparison of all 3 groups). Horizontal lines = median. Whiskers = 25th and 75th interquartile ranges. Top brackets = pairwise comparisons. P values presented are after Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons. Association of Sodium and Copeptin Longitudinal data, adjusting for subgroups (ie, DI, SIADH, neither), were analyzed. As expected, there was a group difference (P = 0.003) in serum sodium over time (all DI was missing preoperative serum sodium), with the difference being driven by DI vs SIADH (P = 0.007), and SIADH vs neither (P = 0.012). There was no group difference in plasma copeptin over POD by water balance status (P = 0.16) over time (Fig. 7). There was also no effect by remission status at 3 to 6 months for either serum sodium or plasma copeptin. Figure 7. Open in new tabDownload slide (A) Serum sodium and (B) plasma copeptin by POD and water balance status longitudinal data, adjusting for subgroups (ie, DI, SIADH, neither). Data points at point 0 on the x-axis indicate preoperative values. As expected, there was a group difference (P = 0.003) in serum sodium over time (all with DI were missing preoperative serum sodium), with the difference being driven by DI vs SIADH (P = 0.007), and SIADH vs neither (P = 0.012). There was no group difference in plasma copeptin over POD by water balance status (P = 0.16) over time. Higher serum sodium levels from PODs 1 through 8 itself decreased the odds of remission (OR, 0.56; 95% CI, 0.42-0.73; P < 0.001) in all CD patients. Copeptin levels from these repeated measures adjusting for serum sodium did not correlate with remission status at 3 to 6 months’ follow-up (P = 0.38). There were no differences in preoperative, peak postoperative, or delta sodium levels by remission vs no remission in all patients and in those with no water balance disorders. Discussion AVP and CRH act synergistically to stimulate the secretion of ACTH and ultimately cortisol [1, 2], and there is evidence that glucocorticoids act by way of negative feedback to suppress AVP secretion [10, 11-20]. Therefore, we hypothesized that a greater postoperative increase in plasma copeptin in those with CD in remission after TSS because of resolution of hypercortisolemia and resultant hypocortisolemia, compared with those not in remission with persistent hypercortisolemia and continued negative feedback, would be observed. Although a clear difference in peak postoperative and Δcopeptin was not observed in this study, a higher peak postoperative copeptin was found in those in remission after excluding those who developed DI/SIADH when analyzing this comparison with parametric testing, and it is possible that we did not have the power to detect a difference by nonparametric testing, given our small sample size. Therefore, postoperative plasma copeptin may be a useful early marker to predict remission of CD after TSS. The utility of this test may be limited to those who do not develop water balance disorders postoperatively. If a true increase in copeptin occurs for those in remission after treatment of CD, it is possible that this could be due to the removal of negative feedback from cortisol excess on pre-pro-AVP secretion, as hypothesized in this study. However, it is also possible that other factors may contribute to an increase in copeptin postoperatively, including from the stress response of surgery and postoperative hypocortisolism and resultant stimulation of pre-pro-AVP secretion from these physical stressors and/or from unrecognized SIADH. It was anticipated that more severe hypercortisolism to be negatively correlated with preoperative plasma copeptin because of greater negative feedback on AVP. However, no association was found between preoperative plasma copeptin and markers of severity of hypercortisolism (MN cortisol, AM ACTH, UFC × ULN) in this study. Similarly, we would expect that the preoperative plasma copeptin would be lower compared with healthy individuals. However, comparisons of healthy individuals may be difficult because the fluid and osmolality status at the time of the sample could influence the plasma copeptin, and depending on those factors, copeptin could be appropriately low. A healthy control group with whom to compare the preoperative values was not available for this study, and the thirsted state was not standardized for the preoperative copeptin measurements. Future studies could be considered to determine if preoperative plasma copeptin is lower in patients with CD, or other forms of CS, compared with healthy subjects, with all subjects thirsted for an equivalent period. Further, if preoperative plasma copeptin is found to be lower in thirsted subjects with CS than a thirsted healthy control group, the plasma copeptin could potentially be a diagnostic test to lend support for or against the diagnosis of endogenous CS. In the comparisons of those who developed DI, SIADH, or neither, no difference was found in the Δcopeptin. Peak copeptin was lower in DI compared with those without DI or SIADH (but not different from SIADH). Again, it is possible that there is a lower peak postoperative copeptin and change in copeptin in those with DI, but we may not have had the power to detect this in all of our analyses. These comparisons of copeptin among those with or without water balance disorders postoperatively are somewhat consistent with a prior study showing postoperative copeptin as a good predictor of development of DI, in which a plasma copeptin < 2.5 pmol/L measured on POD 0 accurately identified those who developed DI, and plasma copeptin > 30 pmol/L ruled out the development of DI postoperatively [29]. In the current study, 3 of 6 subjects with DI had a POD 1 plasma copeptin < 2.5 pmol/L, and none had a POD 1 plasma copeptin > 30 pmol/L. However, the study by Winzeler et al found that copeptin measured on POD 0 (within 12 hours after surgery) had the greatest predictive value, and POD 0 plasma copeptin was not available in our study. Further, we used the preoperative, peak, and delta plasma copeptin for analyses, so the early low copeptin levels may not have been captured in our data and analyses. Additionally, this study revealed that increasing levels of serum sodium have lower odds of remission. Those who have an ACTH-producing adenoma that is not identified by magnetic resonance imaging and visual inspection intraoperatively have lower rates of remission and are more likely to have greater manipulation of the pituitary gland intraoperatively [32-36], and the latter may result in greater damage to the pituitary stalk or posterior pituitary, increasing the risk for development of DI and resultant hypernatremia. A higher preoperative copeptin was associated with male sex and increasing BMI SDS. Increasing preoperative copeptin was also found in pubertal boys compared with pubertal girls, with no difference in copeptin between prepubertal boys and girls. It is particularly interesting to note that these associations were only in the preoperative plasma copeptin levels, but not the postoperative peak copeptin or Δcopeptin. Because the association of higher plasma in adult males and pubertal males in comparison to adult females and pubertal females, respectively, have been reported by others [26, 37-40], it raises the question of a change in the association of sex and BMI with plasma copeptin in the postoperative state. An effect of BMI or sex was not found by remission status, so it does not seem that the postoperative hypocortisolemic state for those in remission could explain this loss of association. However, this study may not have been powered to detect this. Strengths of this study include the prospective nature of the study. Further, this is the first study assessing the utility of copeptin to predict remission after treatment of CD. Limitations of this study include the small sample size because of the rarity of the condition, difficulty in clinically diagnosing DI and SIADH, potential effect of post-TSS fluid balance disorders (particularly for those who may have developed transient partial DI or transient SIADH), lack of long-term follow-up, lack of any postoperative follow-up in 11 of the 44 total subjects, as well the observational nature of the study. Further, it is possible that pubertal status, sex, and BMI may have affected copeptin levels, which may have not been consistently detected because of lack of power. Lack of data on the timing of hydrocortisone replacement is an additional limitation of this study because postoperative glucocorticoid replacement could affect AVP secretion via negative feedback. Additional studies are needed to assess to further assess the role of vasopressin and measurement of copeptin in patients before and after treatment of CD. A clear difference in peak postoperative plasma copeptin as an early marker to predict remission of CD after TSS was not found. Further studies with larger sample sizes are needed to further evaluate postoperative plasma copeptin as an early marker to predict remission of CD, though the utility of this test may be limited to those who do not develop water balance disorders postoperatively. Future studies comparing copeptin levels before and after treatment of adrenal CS would be of particular interest because this would minimize the risk of postoperative DI or SIADH which also influence copeptin levels. Additionally, comparison of thirsted preoperative plasma copeptin in those with endogenous CS and thirsted plasma copeptin in healthy controls could potentially provide evidence of whether or not preoperative plasma copeptin is lower in patients with CD, or other forms of CS, compared with healthy subjects. Further, if this is found to be true, it could potentially be a diagnostic test to lend support for or against endogenous CS. Abbreviations AVP arginine vasopressin BMI body mass index CD Cushing disease CS Cushing syndrome DI diabetes insipidus HPA hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal IQR interquartile range MN midnight OR odds ratio POD postoperative day SDS SD score SIADH syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis TSS transsphenoidal surgery UFC urinary free cortisol ULN upper limit of normal Acknowledgments The authors thank the patients and their families for participating in this study. Funding This work was supported by the Intramural Research Program, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health & Human Development (NICHD), National Institutes of Health. Disclosures C.A.S. holds patents on technologies involving PRKAR1A, PDE11A, GPR101, and related genes, and his laboratory has received research funding support by Pfizer Inc. for investigations unrelated to this project. C.A.S. is associated with the following pharmaceutical companies: ELPEN, Inc., H. Lunbeck A/S, and Sync. Inc. Clinical Trial Information ClinicalTrials.gov registration no. NCT00001595 (registered November 4, 1999). Data Availability Some or all datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Endocrine Society 2022. This work is written by (a) US Government employee(s) and is in the public domain in the US. From https://academic.oup.com/jes/article/6/6/bvac053/6564309?login=false

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aace.2022.04.003Get rights and content Under a Creative Commons license Open access Highlights • We describe a rare case of a patient with a sparsely granulated corticotroph pituitary macroadenoma with pituitary apoplexy who underwent transsphenoidal resection resulting in remission of hypercortisolism. • Corticotroph adenomas are divided into densely granulated, sparsely granulated and Crooke’s cell tumors. • macroadenomas account for 7-23% of patients with pituitary corticotroph adenomas • Sparsely granulated corticotroph tumors are associated with longer duration of Cushing disease prior to diagnosis, larger tumor size at diagnosis, decreased immediate remission rate, increased proliferative marker Ki-67 and increased recovery time of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis after surgery. • Granulation pattern is an important clinicopathological distinction impacting the behavior and treatment outcomes of pituitary corticotroph adenomas Abstract Background /Objective: Pituitary corticotroph macroadenomas, which account for 7% to 23% of corticotroph adenomas, rarely present with apoplexy. The objective of this report is to describe a patient with a sparsely granulated corticotroph tumor (SGCT) presenting with apoplexy and remission of hypercortisolism. Case Report A 33-year-old male presented via ambulance with sudden onset of severe headache and nausea/vomiting. Physical exam revealed bitemporal hemianopsia, diplopia from right-sided third cranial nerve palsy, abdominal striae, facial plethora, dorsal and supraclavicular fat pad. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) demonstrated a 3.2 cm mass arising from the sella turcica with hemorrhage compressing the optic chiasm, extension into the sphenoid sinus and cavernous sinus. Initial investigations revealed plasma cortisol of 64.08 mcg/dL (Reference Range (RR), 2.36 – 17.05). He underwent emergent transsphenoidal surgery. Pathology was diagnostic of SGCT. Post-operatively, cortisol was <1.8ug/dL (RR, 2.4 – 17), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) 36 pg/mL (RR, 0 – 81), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) 0.07 uIU/mL (RR, 0.36 - 3.74), free thyroxine 1 ng/dL (RR, 0.8 – 1.5), luteinizing hormone (LH) <1 mIU/mL (RR, 1 – 12), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) 1 mIU/mL (RR, 1 – 12) and testosterone 28.8 ng/dL (RR, 219.2 – 905.6) with ongoing requirement for hydrocortisone, levothyroxine, testosterone replacement and continued follow-up. Discussion Corticotroph adenomas are divided into densely granulated, sparsely granulated and Crooke’s cell tumors. Sparsely granulated pattern is associated with larger tumor size and decreased remission rate after surgery. Conclusion This report illustrates a rare case of hypercortisolism remission due to apoplexy of a SGCT with subsequent central adrenal insufficiency, hypothyroidism and hypogonadism. Keywords pituitary apoplexy pituitary macroadenoma pituitary tumor sparsely granulated corticotroph tumor Cushing disease Introduction The incidence of Cushing Disease (CD) is estimated to be between 0.12 to 0.24 cases per 100,00 persons per year1,2. Of these, 7-23% are macroadenomas (>1 cm)3, 4, 5. Pituitary apoplexy is a potentially life-threatening endocrine and neurosurgical emergency which occurs due to infarction or hemorrhage in the pituitary gland. Apoplexy occurs most commonly in non-functioning macroadenomas with an estimated prevalence of 6.2 cases per 100,000 persons and incidence of 0.17 cases per 100,00 persons per year6. Corticotroph macroadenoma presenting with apoplexy is uncommon with only a handful of reports in the literature7. We present a case of a sparsely granulated corticotroph (SGCT) which presented with apoplexy leading to remission of hypercortisolism and subsequent central adrenal insufficiency. Case Presentation A 33-year-old male who was otherwise healthy and not on any medications presented to a community hospital with sudden and severe headache accompanied by hypotension, nausea, vomiting, bitemporal hemianopsia and diplopia. Computed Tomography (CT) scan of the brain demonstrated a hyperattenuating 2.0 cm x 2.8 cm x 1.5 cm mass at the sella turcica with extension into the right cavernous sinus and encasement of the right internal carotid arteries (Figure 1A). He was transferred to a tertiary care center for neurosurgical management with endocrinology consultation post-operatively. Download : Download high-res image (404KB) Download : Download full-size image Figure 1. hyperattenuating 2.0 cm x 2.8 cm x 1.5 cm mass at the sella turcica on unenhanced CT (A); MRI demonstrated a 1.9 cm x 3.2 cm x 2.4 cm heterogeneous mass on T1 (B) and T2-weighted imaging (C) showing small hyperintense areas in solid part of the sella mass with flattening of the optic chiasm, remodeling/dehiscence of the floor of the sella and extending into the right cavernous sinus with at least partial encasement of the ICA In retrospect, he reported a 3-year history of ongoing symptoms of hypercortisolism including increased central obesity, dorsal and supraclavicular fat pad, facial plethora, abdominal purple striae, easy bruising, fatigue, decreased libido and erectile dysfunction. Notably, at the time of presentation he did not have a history of diabetes, hypertension, osteoporosis, fragility fractures or proximal muscle weakness. He fathered 2 children previously. His physical examination was significant for Cushingoid facies, facial plethora, dorsal and supraclavicular fat pads and central obesity with significant axillary and abdominal wide purple striae (Figure 2). Neurological examination revealed bitemporal hemianopsia, right third cranial nerve palsy with ptosis and impaired extraocular movement. The fourth and sixth cranial nerves were intact as was the rest of his neurological exam. These findings were corroborated by Ophthalmology. Download : Download high-res image (477KB) Download : Download full-size image Figure 2. Representative images illustrating facial plethora (A); abdominal striae (B, C); supraclavicular fat pad (D); dorsal fat pad (E) Initial laboratory data at time of presentation to the hospital included elevated plasma cortisol of 64.08ug/dL (RR, 2.36 – 17.05), ACTH was not drawn at the time of presentation, normal TSH 0.89 mIU/L (RR, 0.36 – 3.74), free thyroxine 0.91ng/dL (RR, 0.76 – 1.46), evidence of central hypogonadism with low total testosterone 28.8 ng/dL (RR, 219.2 – 905.6) and inappropriately normal luteinizing hormone (LH) 1mIU/mL (RR, 1 – 12) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) 3mIU/mL (RR, 1 – 12), low prolactin <1 ng/mL (RR, 3 – 20), and normal insulin growth factor – 1 (IGF–1) 179ng/mL (RR, 82 – 242). A pituitary gland dedicated MRI was performed to further characterize the mass, which re-demonstrated a 1.9 cm x 3.2 cm x 2.4 cm heterogenous mass at the sella turcica extending superiorly and flattening the optic chiasm, remodeling of the floor of the sella and bulging into the sphenoid sinus and extending laterally into the cavernous sinus with encasement of the right internal carotid artery (ICA). As per the radiologist’s diagnostic impression, this appearance was most in keeping with a pituitary macroadenoma with apoplexy (Figure 1B – C). The patient underwent urgent TSS and decompression with no acute complications. Pathological examination of the pituitary adenoma showed features characteristic of sparsely granulated corticotroph pituitary neuroendocrine tumor (adenoma)8, with regional hemorrhage and tumor necrosis (apoplexy). The viable tumor exhibited a solid growth pattern (Figure 3A), t-box transcription factor (T-pit) nuclear immunolabeling (Figure 3B), diffuse cytoplasmic CAM5.2 (low molecular weight cytokeratin) immunolabeling (Figure 3C), and regional weak to moderate intense granular cytoplasmic ACTH immuno-staining (Figure 3D). The tumor was immuno-negative for: pituitary-specific positive transcription factor 1 (Pit-1) and steroidogenic factor 1 (SF-1) transcription factors, growth hormone, prolactin, TSH, FSH, LH, estrogen receptor-alpha, and alpha-subunit. Crooke hyalinization was not identified in an adjacent compressed fragment of non-adenomatous anterior pituitary tissue. Ki-67 immunolabeling showed a 1.5% proliferative index (11 of 726 nuclei). Download : Download high-res image (2MB) Download : Download full-size image Figure 3. Hematoxylin phloxine saffron staining showing adenoma with solid growth pattern (A); immunohistochemical staining showing T-pit reactivity of tumor nuclei (B); diffuse cytoplasmic staining for cytokeratin CAM5.2 (C); and regional moderately intense granular cytoplasmic staining for ACTH (D). Scale bar = 20 μm Post-operatively, he developed transient central diabetes insipidus requiring desmopressin but resolved on discharge. His postoperative cortisol was undetectable, ACTH 36 pg/mL (RR, 0 - 81), TSH 0.07 mIU/mL (RR, 0.36 - 3.74), free thyroxine 1 ng/dL (RR, 0.8 - 1.5), LH <1mIU/mL (RR, 1 - 12), FSH 1 mIU/mL (RR, 1 - 12) and testosterone 28.8 ng/dL (RR, 219.2 - 905.6) (Table 1 and Figure 4). One month later, he reported 15 pounds of weight loss and a 5-inch decrease in waist circumference. He also noted a reduction in the dorsal and supraclavicular fat pads, facial plethora, and Cushingoid facies as well as fading of the abdominal stretch marks. His visual field defects and right third cranial nerve palsy resolved on follow up with ophthalmology post-operatively. Repeat MRI six months post-operatively showed minor residual soft tissue along the floor of the sella. He is being followed by Neurosurgery, Ophthalmology, and Endocrinology for monitoring of disease recurrence, visual defects, and management of hypopituitarism. Table 1. Pre- and post-operative hormonal panel POD -1 POD 0 POD1 POD2 POD3 POD16 6 -9 months Comments Cortisol(2.4 – 17 ug/dL) 64↓ 32↓ 11↓ <1.8↓ <1.8↓ 1.8↓ HC started POD3 post bloodwork ACTH(0 – 81 pg/mL) 41↓ 36↓ 28↓ 13↓ TSH(0.36 - 3.74 uIU/mL) 0.89 0.43 0.12↓ 0.07↓ 0.05↓ 0.73 Thyroxine, free(0.8 – 1.5 ng/dL) 0.9 0.9 1.1 1 2.1↑ 1 Levothyroxine started POD4 LH(1 – 12 miU/mL) 1↓ <1↓ 1↓ 3 FSH(1 – 12 mIU/mL) 3↓ 1↓ 1↓ 3 Testosterone(219.2 – 905.6 ng/dL) 28.8↓ <20↓ 175.9↓ Testosterone replacement started as outpatient Testosterone, free(160 - 699 pmol/L) <5.8↓ 137↓ IGF-1(82 – 242 ng/mL) 179 79 GH(fasting < 6 mIU/L) 4.5 <0.3 Prolactin(3 – 20 ng/mL) <1↓ <1↓ POD, postoperative day; HC, hydrocortisone; ACTH, adrenocorticotropic hormone; TSH, thyroid stimulating hormone; LH, luteinizing Hormone; FSH, follicle stimulating hormone; IGF-1, insulin like growth factor - 1; GH, growth hormone Download : Download high-res image (259KB) Download : Download full-size image Figure 4. Trend of select pituitary hormonal panel with key clinical events denoted by black arrows. Discussion Microadenomas account for the majority of corticotroph tumors, but 7% – 23% of patients are diagnosed with a macroadenoma3, 4, 5. It is even rarer for a corticotroph macroadenoma to present with apoplexy with only a handful of case reports or series in the literature7. Due to its rarity, appropriate biochemical workup on presentation, such as including an ACTH with the blood work, may be omitted especially if the patient is going for emergent surgery. In this case, the undetectable prolactin can reflect loss of anterior pituitary function and also suggest a functioning corticotroph adenoma due to the inhibitory effect of long term serum glucocorticoids on prolactin secretion9. After undergoing TSS, the patient developed central adrenal insufficiency, hypothyroidism and hypogonadism requiring hormone replacement. Presumably, the development of adrenal insufficiency demonstrated the remission of hypercortisolism as a result of apoplexy and/or TSS. The ACTH remains detectable likely representing residual tumor that was not obliterated by apoplexy nor excised by TSS given it location near the carotid artery and cavernous sinus. The presence of adrenal insufficiency in the setting of detectable ACTH is not contradictory as the physiological hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis has been suppressed by the long-term pathological production of ACTH. IGF-1 and prolactin also failed to recover post-operatively. In CD where the production of IGF-1 and prolactin are attenuated by elevated cortisol, it would then be expected that IGF-1 and prolactin recover after hypercortisolism remission. However, the absence of this observation in our case is likely a sequalae of the apoplexy and extensive surgery leading to pituitary hypofunction. We also want to highlight features of the pre-operative radiographical findings which can provide valuable insight into the subsequent histology. Previous literature has shown that, on T2-weight MRI, silent corticotroph adenomas are strongly correlated with characteristic a multimicrocystic appearance while nonfunctional gonadotroph macroadenomas are not correlated with this MRI finding10. The multimicrocystic appearance is described as small hyperintense areas with hyperintense striae in the solid part of the tumor (Figure 1C)10. This is an useful predictive tool for silent corticotroph adenomas with a sensitivity of 76%, specificity of 95% and a likelihood ratio of 15.310. The ability to distinguish between silent corticotroph macroadenoma and other macroadenomas is important for assessing rate of remission and recurrence risk. In 2017, the WHO published updated classification for pituitary tumors. In this new classification, corticotroph adenomas are further divided into densely granulated, sparsely granulated and Crooke’s cell tumors11. DGCT are intensely Periodic Acid Schiff (PAS) stain positive and exhibit strong diffuse pattern of ACTH immunoreactivity, whereas SGCT exhibit faintly positive PAS alongside weak focal ACTH immunoreactivity4,12. Crooke’s cell tumors are characterized by Crooke’s hyaline changes in more than 50% of the tumor cells4. In the literature, SGCT account for an estimated 19-29% of corticotroph adenomas13, 14, 15. The clinicopathological relevance of granulation pattern in corticotroph tumors was unclear until recently. In multiple studies examining granulation pattern and tumor size, SGCT were statistically larger13,15,16. Hence, we suspect that many of the previously labelled silent corticotroph macroadenomas in the literature were SGCT. The traditional teaching of CD has been “small tumor, big Cushing and big tumor, small Cushing” which reflects the inverse relationship between tumor size and symptomatology17. This observation appears to hold true as Doğanşen et al. found a trend towards longer duration of CD in SGCT of 34 months compared to 26 months in DGCT based on patient history13,17. It has been postulated that the underlying mechanism of the inverse relationship between tumor size and symptomatology is impaired processing of proopiomelanocortin resulting in less effective secretion of ACTH in corticotroph macroadenomas3. Doğanşen et al. also found that the recurrence rate was doubled for SGCT, while Witek et al. showed that SGCT were less likely to achieve remission postoperatively13,16. Similar to other cases of SGCT, the diagnosis was only arrived retrospective after pathological confirmation10. Interestingly, the characteristic Crooke’s hyaline change of surrounding non-adenomatous pituitary tissue was not observed as one would expect in a state of prolonged glucocorticoid excess in this case. Although classically described, the absence of this finding does not rule out CD. As evident in a recent retrospective study where 10 out of 144 patients with CD did not have Crooke’s hyaline change18. In patients without Crooke’s hyaline change, the authors found a lower remission rate of 44.4% compared to 73.5% in patients with Crooke’s hyaline change. Together with the detectable post-operative ACTH, sparsely granulated pattern and absence of Crooke’s hyaline change in surrounding pituitary tissue, the risk of recurrence is increased. These risk factors emphasize the importance of close monitoring to ensure early detection of recurrence. Declaration of Interests ☒ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. ☐The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: Conclusion We present a case of a sparsely granulated corticotroph macroadenoma presenting with apoplexy leading to remission of hypercortisolism and development of central adrenal insufficiency, hypothyroidism and hypogonadism requiring hormone replacement. References 1 J. Lindholm, S. Juul, J.O. Jørgensen, et al. Incidence and late prognosis of cushing's syndrome: a population-based study J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 86 (1) (2001), pp. 117-123 View Record in ScopusGoogle Scholar 2 J. Etxabe, J.A. Vazquez Morbidity and mortality in Cushing's disease: an epidemiological approach Clin Endocrinol (Oxf), 40 (4) (1994), pp. 479-484 View PDF CrossRefView Record in ScopusGoogle Scholar 3 L. Katznelson, J.S. Bogan, J.R. Trob, et al. Biochemical assessment of Cushing's disease in patients with corticotroph macroadenomas J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 83 (5) (1998), pp. 1619-1623 View Record in ScopusGoogle Scholar 4 L.V. Syro, F. Rotondo, M.D. Cusimano, et al. Current status on histological classification in Cushing's disease Pituitary, 18 (2) (2015), pp. 217-224 View PDF CrossRefView Record in ScopusGoogle Scholar 5 Y.S. Woo, A.M. Isidori, W.Z. Wat, et al. Clinical and biochemical characteristics of adrenocorticotropin-secreting macroadenomas J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 90 (8) (2005), pp. 4963-4969 View PDF CrossRefView Record in ScopusGoogle Scholar 6 C. Briet, S. Salenave, J.F. Bonneville, E.R. Laws, P. Chanson Pituitary Apoplexy Endocr Rev, 36 (6) (2015), pp. 622-645 View PDF CrossRefView Record in ScopusGoogle Scholar 7 K. Siwakoti, S.B. Omay, S.E. Inzucchi SPONTANEOUS RESOLUTION OF PRIMARY HYPERCORTISOLISM OF CUSHING DISEASE AFTER PITUITARY HEMORRHAGE AACE Clin Case Rep, 6 (1) (2020), pp. e23-e29 ArticleDownload PDFCrossRefView Record in ScopusGoogle Scholar 8 S.L. Asa, O. Mete What's new in pituitary pathology? Histopathology, 72 (1) (2018), pp. 133-141 View PDF CrossRefView Record in ScopusGoogle Scholar 9 M.E. Freeman, B. Kanyicska, A. Lerant, G. Nagy Prolactin: Structure, Function, and Regulation of Secretion Physiological Reviews, 80 (4) (2000), pp. 1523-1631 View PDF CrossRefView Record in ScopusGoogle Scholar 10 L. Cazabat, M. Dupuy, A. Boulin, et al. Silent, but not unseen: multimicrocystic aspect on T2-weighted MRI in silent corticotroph adenomas Clin Endocrinol (Oxf), 81 (4) (2014), pp. 566-572 View PDF CrossRefView Record in ScopusGoogle Scholar 11 M.B.S. Lopes The 2017 World Health Organization classification of tumors of the pituitary gland: a summary Acta Neuropathol, 134 (4) (2017), pp. 521-535 View PDF CrossRefView Record in ScopusGoogle Scholar 12 W. Saeger, J. Honegger, M. Theodoropoulou, et al. Clinical Impact of the Current WHO Classification of Pituitary Adenomas Endocr Pathol, 27 (2) (2016), pp. 104-114 View PDF CrossRefView Record in ScopusGoogle Scholar 13 S. Doğanşen, B. Bilgiç, G.Y. Yalin, S. Tanrikulu, S. Yarman Clinical Significance of Granulation Pattern in Corticotroph Pituitary Adenomas Turk Patoloji Derg, 35 (1) (2019), pp. 9-14 Google Scholar 14 O. Mete, A. Cintosun, I. Pressman, S.L. Asa Epidemiology and biomarker profile of pituitary adenohypophysial tumors Mod Pathol, 31 (6) (2018), pp. 900-909 View PDF CrossRefView Record in ScopusGoogle Scholar 15 B. Rak, M. Maksymowicz, M. Pękul, G. Zieliński Clinical, Biological, Radiological Pathological and Immediate Post-Operative Remission of Sparsely and Densely Granulated Corticotroph Pituitary Tumors: A Retrospective Study of a Cohort of 277 Patients With Cushing's Disease Front Endocrinol (Lausanne), 12 (2021) 672178 Google Scholar 16 P. Witek, G. Zieliński, K. Szamotulska, M. Maksymowicz, G. Kamiński Clinicopathological predictive factors in the early remission of corticotroph pituitary macroadenomas in a tertiary referral centre Eur J Endocrinol, 174 (4) (2016), pp. 539-549 View PDF CrossRefView Record in ScopusGoogle Scholar 17 A.M. McNicol Tumors of the pituitary gland. S. L. Asa. AFIP atlas of tumor pathology, third series The Journal of Pathology, 188 (1) (1999), pp. 115-116 View Record in ScopusGoogle Scholar 18 A. Akirov, V. Larouche, I. Shimon, et al. Significance of Crooke's Hyaline Change in Nontumorous Corticotrophs of Patients With Cushing Disease Front Endocrinol (Lausanne), 12 (2021) 620005 Google Scholar From https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2376060522000268#!

The study covered in this summary was published on Research Square as a preprint and has not yet been peer reviewed. Key Takeaways A study of 78 patients who underwent elective transsphenoidal adenomectomy to remove a pituitary tumor or other lesions within the pituitary fossa at a single center in the UK suggests that postoperative plasma levels of copeptin — a surrogate marker for levels of arginine vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone) — can rule out development of central (neurogenic) diabetes insipidus caused by a deficiency of arginine vasopressin following pituitary surgery. The researchers suggest using as a cutoff a copeptin level of >3.4 pmol/L at postoperative day 1 to rule out diabetes insipidus. Such a cutoff yields the following: A high sensitivity of 91% for ruling out diabetes insipidus. A negative predictive value of 97%. Only 1 of 38 patients with a copeptin value >3.4 pmol/L at day 1 postoperatively developed diabetes insipidus. A low specificity of 55%, meaning that copeptin level is not useful for diagnosing diabetes insipidus Why This Matters An estimated 1% to 67% of patients who undergo pituitary gland surgery develop diabetes insipidus, often soon after surgery, although it is often transient. Diagnosing diabetes insipidus in such patients requires a combination of clinical assessment, the monitoring of fluid balance, and determining plasma and urine sodium and osmolality. Currently, clinical laboratories in the UK do not have assays for arginine vasopressin, which has a short half-life in vivo and is unstable ex vivo, even when frozen, and is affected by delayed or incomplete separation from platelets. Copeptin, an arginine vasopressin precursor, is much more stable and measurable by commercial immunoassays. The findings suggest that patients who have just undergone pituitary gland surgery and are otherwise healthy and meet the copeptin cutoff for ruling out diabetes insipidus could be discharged 24 hours after surgery and that there is no need for additional clinical and biochemical monitoring. This change would ease demands on the healthcare system. Study Design The study reviewed 78 patients who underwent elective transsphenoidal adenomectomy to remove a pituitary tumor from November 2017 to June 2020 at the John Radcliffe Hospital in Oxford, United Kingdom. Patients remained in hospital for a minimum of 48 hours after their surgery. Clinicians collected blood and urine specimens preoperatively and at day 1, day 2, day 8, and week 6 post surgery. The patients were restricted to 2 L of fluid a day postoperatively to prevent masking of biochemical abnormalities through compensatory drinking. Diabetes insipidus was suspected when patients' urine output was >200 mL/h for 3 consecutive hours or >3 L/d plus high plasma sodium (>145 mmol/L) and plasma osmolality (> 295 mosmol/kg) plus inappropriately low urine osmolality. Definitive diagnosis of diabetes insipidus was based on clinical assessment, urine and plasma biochemistry, and need for treatment with desmopressin (1-deamino-8-D-arginine vasopressin). Key Results The median age of the patients was 55, and 53% were men; 92% of the lesions were macroadenomas; the most common histologic type was gonadotroph tumor (47%). Among the 78 patients, 11 (14%) were diagnosed with diabetes insipidus postoperatively and required treatment with desmopressin; of these, seven patients (9%) continued taking desmopressin after 6 weeks (permanent diabetes insipidus), but the other four did not need to take desmopressin for more than a week. Patients who developed diabetes insipidus were younger than other patients (mean age, 46 vs 56), and 8 of the 11 patients who developed diabetes insipidus (73%) were women. Preoperative copeptin levels were similar in the two groups. At day 1, day 8, and 6 weeks postoperatively, copeptin levels were significantly lower in the diabetes insipidus group; there were no significant differences at day 2, largely because of an outlier result. An area under the receiver operating characteristic curve (AUC; C-statistic) analysis showed that on day 1 after surgery, copeptin levels could account for 74.22% of the incident cases of diabetes insipidus (AUC, 0.7422). On postop day 8, the AUC for copeptin was 0.8015, and after 6 weeks, the AUC associated with copeptin was 0.7321. Limitations Blood samples for copeptin tests from patients who underwent pituitary surgery were collected at specified times and were frozen for later analysis; performing the test in real time might alter patient management. The study may have missed peak copeptin levels by not determining copeptin levels sooner after pituitary gland surgery, inasmuch as other researchers have reported better predictive values for diagnosing diabetes insipidus from samples taken 1 hour after extubation or <12 hours after surgery. Disclosures The study did not receive commercial funding. The authors report no relevant financial relationships. This is a summary of a preprint research study, "Post-Operative Copeptin Analysis Predicts Which Patients Do Not Develop Diabetes Insipidus After Pituitary Surgery," by researchers from John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, in the United Kingdom. Preprints from Research Square are provided to you by Medscape. This study has not yet been peer reviewed. The full text of the study can be found on researchsquare.com. Read the article here: https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/970357#vp_1

This article was originally published here Front Surg. 2022 Feb 2;8:806855. doi: 10.3389/fsurg.2021.806855. eCollection 2021. ABSTRACT PURPOSE: Currently, endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery (ETS) and microscopic transsphenoidal surgery (MTS) are commonly applied treatments for patients with pituitary adenomas. This meta-analysis was conducted to evaluate the efficacy and safety of ETS and MTS for these patients. METHODS: A computer search of Pubmed, Embase, Cochrane library, Web of Science, and Google Scholar databases was conducted for studies investigating ETS and MTS for patients with pituitary adenomas. The deadline is March 01, 2021. RevMan5.1 software was used to complete this meta-analysis after literature screening, data extraction, and literature quality evaluation. RESULTS: A total of 37 studies including 5,591 patients were included. There was no significant difference in gross tumor removal (GTR) and hormone-excess secretion remission (HES remission) between two groups [RR = 1.10, 95% CI (0.99-1.22), P = 0.07; RR = 1.09, 95% CI (1.00-1.20), P = 0.05]. ETS was associated with lower incidence of diabetes insipidus (DI) [RR = 0.71, 95% CI (0.58-0.87), P = 0.0008], hypothyroidism [RR = 0.64, 95% CI (0.47-0.89), P = 0.007], and septal perforation [RR = 0.32, 95% CI (0.13-0.79), P = 0.01] than those with MTS. CONCLUSION: This meta-analysis indicated that ETS cannot significantly improve GTR and HES remission. However, ETS could reduce the incidence of DI, hypothyroidism, and septal perforation without increasing the rate of other complications. SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/#myprospero, identifier: CRD42021241217. PMID:35187049 | PMC:PMC8847202 | DOI:10.3389/fsurg.2021.806855

Best friends Charly Clive and Ellen Robertson thought carefully about what to call the tumour that was growing in Charly’s brain. The doctors had their own name for the golf-ball-sized growth sitting right behind Charly’s left eye — a pituitary adenoma — but the friends decided they needed something less scary. They flirted with calling it Terry Wogan (‘as in Pitui-Terry Wogan,’ says Ellen), but that didn’t seem quite right. So Britney Spears fan Charly, then 23, suggested Britney. Bingo! Not only was she ‘iconic and fabulous’, but Britney was also one of life’s survivors. From then on, they were a threesome — Charly, Ellen and Britney the brain tumour — although Ellen is at pains to point out that this Britney was never a friend. What a thing to have to deal with, so young. The pair, who met at school in rural Oxfordshire, are now actresses. Charly’s biggest role to date has been in the critically acclaimed 2019 Channel 4 series Pure, while Ellen starred in the Agatha Christie mini-series The Pale Horse. But this week they appeared together in Britney, a BBC comedy based on the story of Charly’s brain tumour. The TV pilot (and yes, they are hoping for a full series) is an expansion of a sell-out stage show they performed at the Edinburgh Fringe in 2016. The production is admittedly surreal. Viewers are led inside Charly’s brain and the show includes a scene where Charly dons an inflatable sumo-wrestler suit on the day of her diagnosis. Poetic licence? No, it really happened. ‘My dad’s mate had given him a sumo suit as a silly Christmas present and so, on Doomsday, we took photos of me in it.’ The tone was set for how these friends would deal with the biggest challenge of their lives: they would laugh through it, somehow. As the women, now 28, point out, what was the alternative? Charly says: ‘It was that thing of laughing at the monster so you are not scared of it. If you cry when do you stop? It was easier to make light of it.’ Their show is not really about a brain tumour. It’s a celebration of friendship. Ellen pretty much moved in with Charly’s family during this time (‘To be in place when I exploded, so she could pick up the debris,’ says Charly). The pair live together today, finishing each other’s sentences as we speak on Zoom — and at one point both miming Charly’s brain surgery (with gruesome sound effects). This sort of silliness rooted their friendship, which started at the age of 14 when they wrote their own plays (Finding Emo, anyone?) while at school together in Abingdon. Charly later moved to New York to study dramatic arts, and Ellen studied at Cambridge. In 2015, Charly came home for a visit, and went to see her GP (played in the drama by Omid Djalili) about her lack of periods and a blind spot in her peripheral vision. An MRI scan showed a mass on her brain. ‘They said it had eroded the bone in my nose and was pressing on the optic nerve, and it was lucky we had caught it,’ she says. ‘The next step would have been discovering it because I’d gone blind.’ Even worse, the tumour was so close to her carotid artery that removal might kill her — and they still had no idea if it was cancerous. Into the breach stepped Ellen. ‘I saw it as my job to make her laugh, which is what I’d always done anyway,’ she says. They both talk of toppling into limbo, ‘almost like a fantasy world’, says Charly. ‘As I was going through the tests, we’d do impressions of the doctors and create our own scenarios.’ The friends talk about sitting up into the night, watching TV. There is a touching moment when Charly admits she was afraid to sleep, and Ellen knew it. ‘It’s hard when you are thinking “What if the tumour grows another inch in the night and I don’t wake up?” ’ Charly was operated on in March 2016, and Ellen remembers the anaesthetist confiding that Charly’s heart had stopped on the operating table. ‘He wasn’t the most tactful person we’ve ever met. He said “Oh my God, guys, she died”.’ Charly makes a jazz hands gesture. ‘And guess who is alive again?’ Even at that darkest moment, there were flashes of humour. Ellen laughs at the memory of the surgeon in his scrubs, with wellies on. ‘They had blood on them. I was transfixed. I wanted to ask “Is that Charly’s . . . brain blood?” ’ In the stage version of the show, the anaesthetist gets two full scenes. ‘He’s the heartthrob of the piece,’ says Charly. ‘A sexy rugger bloke who is crap at talking to people.’ The days that followed the surgery were hideous — and yet they, too, have been mined for comedy. Charly’s face was bandaged, ‘as if I’d had a Beverly Hills facelift’, and she was warned that she could not sneeze. ‘If I did, bits of my brain would come out my nose,’ she says. Ellen read her extracts from Harry Potter but ‘made them smutty’, which confused the already confused Charly further. ‘I was drug-addled and not myself, and in the most bizarre pain, concentrated in my face’. ‘That week after the surgery was the worst part of all,’ says Ellen, suddenly serious. ‘She was behaving oddly and there was this unacknowledged fear: was this Charly for ever?’ Oh, the relief when the old Charly eventually re-emerged — albeit a more fragile, often tearful version. It was Ellen who persuaded Charly to take their stage show about her illness public — and it went on to win much critical acclaim. ‘I wanted Charly to see it as something other than just this rubbish chapter that needed to be forgotten about,’ says Ellen. For her part, Charly credits her best friend as her saviour: ‘I don’t know how I would have got through it all without Ellen.’ The good news is that Britney was not cancerous, although surgery did not obliterate her entirely. ‘She’s still there, but tiny — just a sludge. I’ve been told that she won’t grow though. If I ever do get another brain tumour, it won’t be Britney.’ Off they go again, imagining what is happening now inside Charly’s brain. ‘Britney is still in there, trying on outfits for a comeback tour, but it won’t happen,’ says Charly. Ellen nods. ‘It’s over,’ she says. ‘But she’s just left a pair of shoes behind.’ Britney is available to watch on BBC Three and BBC iPlayer Adapted from https://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-10264203/I-laughed-brain-tumour-Id-never-stop-crying-Actress-Charly-Clive.html

Headaches are a common complaint in patients with pituitary tumors. Although many patients presumably have headaches which are unrelated to their pituitary tumor, there are several important direct and indirect mechanisms by which pituitary tumors may elicit or exacerbate headaches. Pituitary tumors may directly provoke headaches by eroding laterally into the cavernous sinus, which contains the first and second divisions of the trigeminal nerve, by involvement of the dural lining of the sella or diaphragma sella (which are innervated by the trigeminal nerve), or via sinusitis, particularly after transsphenoidal surgery. Headache pain in these situations is typically characterized by steady, bifrontal or unilateral frontal aching (ipsilateral to tumor). In some instances, pain is localized in the midface (either because of involvement of the second division of the trigeminal or secondary to sinusitis). In contrast to the insidious, subacute development of headaches in most patients with pituitary tumors, patients with pituitary apoplexy may experience acute, severe headaches, perhaps associated with signs and symptoms of meningeal irritation (stiff neck, photophobia), CSF pleocytosis or occulomotor paresis. Routine CT scans of the head occasionally skip the sella, hence the presence of blood or a mass within the sella may not be detected and patients can be misdiagnosed with meningitis or aneurysm. Because pituitary apoplexy represents a neurosurgical emergency, MRI should be used in patients with symptoms suggestive of this disorder. A subacute form of pituitary apoplexy has also been reported. Patients with subacute pituitary apoplexy experience severe and/or frequent headaches over weeks to months and have heme products within the sella on MRI scans. In most instances, headaches are not attributable to direct effects of the pituitary tumor and indirect causes must be considered. Generally, indirect effects of pituitary tumors are caused by reduced secretion of pituitary hormones and are manifested by promotion of "vascular" headaches (e.g., migraine). The major exception to this rule relates to the potential for acromegalic patients to develop headaches secondary to cervical osteoarthritis. Vascular headaches may be exacerbated in association with disruption of normal menstrual cyclicity and impaired gonadal steroid secretion (e.g., from hyperprolactinemia or gonadotropin deficiency). Hyperprolactinemia, hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism may also have direct effects, independent of gonadal hormones. Headaches are common in acromegaly, and in the majority of cases the etiology is not well understood. Finally, drug management of pituitary tumors may inadvertently impact headaches. Octreotide results in extremely rapid headache improvement with patients with acromegaly. The rapid time course suggests it is not due to lowering of GH levels. Octreotide also has a dramatic beneficial effect on migraine and may be producing relief of headache by vascular mechanisms. Occasionally severe headaches surface in acromegalic patients after reduction or discontinuation of octreotide, as a "withdrawal" phenomenon.| Bromocriptine or other dopamine agonists occasionally trigger severe headaches. When this occurs, it is important to recognize that bromocriptine has been reported as a cause of pituitary apoplexy, and it may be necessary to perform an MRI or CT to rule out infarction or hemorrhage within the pituitary. Once it is established that the patient is not infarcting the pituitary, it is generally safe to treat the headaches symptomatically (not with an ASA containing drug) and consider alternative therapies for the prolactinoma if the problem remains severe. Pituitary tumor patients with vascular headaches are generally quite responsive to standard prophylactic migraine drugs (e.g., tricyclic antidepressants, verapamil and beta-blockers). It is best to begin therapy with very low-dose medication (e.g., 10 mg of amitriptyline at bedtime) and resist the impulse to escalate the dose rapidly to higher levels. Often patients have an excellent response to 10-30 mg of a tricyclic antidepressant, although it may take up to six or more weeks to reach the ultimate benefit. The choice of tricyclic antidepressant should be based upon the desired side effects (e.g., either more sedation or less sedation) The newer, serotonin-selective antidepressants are generally less effective for headaches than tricyclics, although some patients do respond nicely to these agents. In some cases it may be necessary to use combination therapy (e.g., verapamil plus a tricyclic). From https://www.massgeneral.org/neurosurgery/treatments-and-services/pituitary-tumors-and-headaches?fbclid=IwAR2iBMjf5VNvw2_ucalXikyIZIh3dJuYu0Kk6P1jhQ2IDnDj9ubkPO4Zl9A

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aace.2021.10.004Get rights and content Under a Creative Commons license open access Highlights • Cushing’s Disease (CD) in pregnancy is rare, but poses many risks to the mother and fetus • Although surgery is still considered first line, this CASE highlights the successful use of metyrapone throughout pregnancy to manage CD in patients where surgery is considered high risk or low likelihood of cure • The dose of metyrapone can be titrated to a goal urinary free cortisol of < 150 ug/24 hours given the known rise in cortisol during gestation • Though no fetal adverse events have been reported, metyrapone does cross the placenta and long-term effects are unknown. ABSTRACT Background Cushing Disease (CD) in pregnancy is a rare, but serious, disease that adversely impacts maternal and fetal outcomes. As the sole use of metyrapone in the management of CD has been rarely reported, we describe our experience using it to treat a pregnant patient with CD. Case Report 34-year-old woman with hypertension who was diagnosed with adrenocorticotropic hormone-dependent CD based on a urinary free cortisol (UFC) of 290 μg/24hr (reference 6-42μg/dL) and abnormal dexamethasone suppression test (cortisol 12.4 μg/dL) before becoming pregnant. She conceived naturally 12 weeks post-transsphenoidal surgery, and was subsequently found to have persistent disease with UFC 768μg/dL. Surgery was deemed high risk given the proximity of the tumor to the right carotid artery and high likelihood of residual disease. Instead, she was managed with metyrapone throughout her pregnancy and titrated to goal UFC of <150μg/24hr due to the known physiologic rise in cortisol during gestation. The patient had diet-controlled gestational diabetes, and well-controlled hypertension. She gave birth at 37 weeks gestation to a healthy baby boy, without adrenal insufficiency in the baby or mother. Discussion This CASE highlights the successful use of metyrapone throughout pregnancy to manage CD in patients where surgery is considered high risk or low likelihood of cure. While metyrapone is effective, close surveillance is required for worsening hypertension, hypokalemia, and potential adrenal insufficiency. Though no fetal adverse events have been reported, this medication crosses the placenta and long-term effects are unknown. Conclusion We describe a CASE of CD during pregnancy that was successfully treated with metyrapone. Key words Cushing disease metyrapone pregnancy cortisol INTRODUCTION Cushing disease (CD) is caused by endogenous overproduction of glucocorticoids due to hypersecretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) by a pituitary adenoma. CD in pregnancy is very rare, and when it occurs, it is considered a high-risk pregnancy with many potential adverse outcomes for both the mother and fetus.1 Infertility is common in CD due to cortisol and androgen excess leading to hypogonadotropic hypogonadism.1 Due to the rarity of CD in pregnancy, there is little guidance in terms of treatment for this patient population. Similar to non-pregnant patients, the first-line treatment is transsphenoidal pituitary adenoma resection, with medical therapy as a second-line treatment option. This report presents a CASE that highlights the use of metyrapone, a steroidogenesis inhibitor, as a sole therapy in cases where surgery is deemed to be high risk and unlikely curative due to location of the tumor. CASE REPORT A 34-year-old woman with a past medical history of hypertension and infertility for six years presented to endocrinology for evaluation. Aside from difficulty conceiving, her only complaints were nausea and easy bruising. On exam she did not have clinical features of CD –abdominal violaceous striae, moon facies or a dorsocervical fat pad were absent. Her laboratory results revealed an elevated prolactin level (50-60ng/mL, reference range 1.4-24), an elevated ACTH level (61 pg/mL, reference range 0-46), and low FSH and LH levels (1.7mIU/mL and 1.76mIU/mL, respectively). Further testing demonstrated an elevated urinary free cortisol level (UFC) (290μg/24 hour, reference range 6-42) and her cortisol failed to suppress on a 1mg dexamethasone suppression test (cortisol 12.4μg/dL). Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the pituitary with and without contrast showed a T2 hyperintense, hypoenhancing lesion within the right side of the sella touching the right cavernous internal carotid artery measuring 8x8x9 mm consistent with a pituitary adenoma (Figure 1). Download : Download high-res image (247KB) Download : Download full-size image Figure 1. Caption: T1 weighted post gadolinium coronal image of the pituitary gland with a small hypoenhancing lesion within the right side of the sella. After the presumed diagnosis of CD was made, she was referred to neurosurgery for transsphenoidal resection of the adenoma, which she underwent a few months later. Intra-operatively, a white friable tumor was found, and otherwise the surgery was uneventful. Three months later, however, she was found to have a persistent 8x8x9mm hypoenhancing lesion extending laterally over the right cavernous carotid artery on MRI. The mass approximated but did not contact the right intracranial optic nerve. The pathology from resected tissue was consistent with normal pituitary tissue with staining for growth hormone (80%), ACTH (30%), prolactin (40%), follicle stimulating hormone (5%), luteinizing hormone (40%) and thyroid stimulating hormone (15%), proving the surgery to have been unsuccessful. Twelve weeks post-operatively, the patient discovered she was pregnant. At 12 weeks gestation, her UFC was 768μg/24h and two midnight salivary cortisol levels were elevated at 0.175 and 0.625μg/dL (reference <0.010-0.090). She was experiencing easy bruising and taking labetalol 400 mg twice daily for hypertension. She had gained 10 pounds by 12 weeks gestation. A second transsphenoidal surgery during pregnancy was deemed high risk, with a high likelihood of residual disease due to the proximity of the tumor to the right carotid artery. The decision was made to treat the patient medically with metyrapone which was started at 250 mg twice per day at 12 weeks gestation and was eventually uptitrated based on UFC levels every 3-4 weeks (goal of <150μg /24h) to 1000 mg three times per day by the time of delivery with an eventual UFC level of 120μg/24h (Figure 2) . Morning ACTH and serum cortisol levels were monitored for potential adrenal insufficiency. Download : Download high-res image (375KB) Download : Download full-size image Figure 2. Caption: This figure depicts the patient’s 24 hour urinary cortisol levels over time as well as the titration of metyrapone dosage in mg/day. Her hypertension was well controlled throughout pregnancy on labetalol with the addition of nifedipine XL 30mg daily in the second trimester. She remained normokalemic with potassium ranging from 3.8-4.1mEq/L. She was diagnosed with gestational diabetes at 24 weeks by an abnormal two-step oral glucose tolerance test, which was diet-controlled. The patient was induced at 37 weeks gestation due to cervical insufficiency with cerclage in place, and was given stress dose steroids along with metyrapone. She delivered a healthy baby boy vaginally without complications. His Apgar scores were 9 and 9 and he weighed 6 pounds and 5 ounces. At the time of delivery and one week later, the baby’s cortisol levels were normal (6 μg/dL, normal 4-20), without evidence of adrenal insufficiency. The patient’s metyrapone dose was reduced to 500mg three times a day after pregnancy and her 2 month postpartum 24 hour UFC was 42μg/24hr. The patient stopped the metyrapone on her own four months later and her UFC was found to be elevated at 272ug/24hr (normal 6-42μg/24hr). An MRI one year postpartum revealed a 10x10x9 mm adenoma in the right sella with some suprasellar extension without compression of the optic chiasm, but with abutment of the right carotid artery. Due to the persistently elevated cortisol, large size of the tumor, and potential for cure, especially if followed by radiation therapy, a second transsphenoidal surgery was recommended. However, due to the COVID-19 pandemic the patient underwent a delayed surgery 1.5 years postpartum. The pathology was consistent with a pituitary adenoma that stained strongly and diffusely for ACTH and synaptophysin, only. Her postoperative day 2 cortisol was 1.1μg/dL (reference range 6.7-22.6) and hydrocortisone 20mg in the morning and 10mg in the afternoon was started. She remains on hydrocortisone replacement and went on to conceive again, one month after her second surgery. DISCUSSION We describe a patient with pre-existing CD who became pregnant and was managed successfully with metyrapone throughout her pregnancy. Although CD is rare in pregnancy, it can occur, and poses risks to both the mother and fetus.1,2 Potential maternal complications include hypertension, preeclampsia, diabetes, fractures and more uncommonly, cardiac failure, psychiatric disorders, infection and maternal death.1,2 There is also increased fetal morbidity including prematurity, intrauterine growth retardation and less commonly CD can lead to stillbirth, spontaneous abortion, intrauterine death and hypoadrenalism.1,2 It is, therefore, imperative that these patients receive prompt care to control cortisol levels. The treatment of CD in pregnancy is challenging as there are no large research trials studying the efficacy and safety of medications in CD during pregnancy. Pituitary surgery is first-line recommendation and should be done late in the first trimester or in the second trimester to prevent spontaneous pregnancy loss.3 In this CASE, however, it was felt that a second surgery would be high-risk given the proximity of the tumor to the right carotid artery and possibly not curative, and thus surgery was not a feasible option. She was therefore successfully managed with medical therapy with metyrapone alone throughout her pregnancy. Metyrapone use in pregnancy has been previously reported in the literature and has been shown to be effective in reducing cortisol levels.4,5,6 Although not approved for use in pregnancy, this steroidogenesis inhibitor is the most commonly used medication to treat Cushing’s syndrome in pregnant women.3,5 Due to metyrapone’s inhibition of 11-beta-hydroxylase, there is a buildup of steroidogenesis precursors such as 11-deoxycorticosterone, which can worsen hypertension, increase frequency of preeclampsia, and cause hypokalemia.3 Metyrapone also leads to elevation of adrenal androgens, which in conjunction with accumulation of 11-deoxycorticosterone, can cause hirsutism and virilization. 8 Though the use of Cabergoline has been reported in cases with Cushing disease during pregnancy, no long term safety data is available regarding it effects on pregnancy as well as the fetus. Moreover, studies assessing the effect of cabergoline in persistent or recurrent CD show a response rate of 20-30% only in cases with mild hypercortisolism. 9 There is no consensus on how to medically treat patients with CD during pregnancy. We chose a goal UFC of <150μg/24 hours because of the physiological rise of cortisol to two to three times the upper limit of normal during pregnancy.3,7 During pregnancy, there is an increase in corticotropin-releasing hormone from the placenta, which is identical in structure to the hypothalamic form.7 This leads to increased levels of ACTH which stimulates the maternal adrenal glands to become slightly hypertrophic and accounts for the rise in serum cortisol levels in pregnancy.7 Corticosteroid-binding globulin also increases in pregnancy, along with serum free cortisol, leading to urinary free cortisol increasing to 3-fold the normal range.7 We therefore aimed to keep our patient’s urinary free cortisol approximately 3 times the upper limit of normal on our assay, to maintain normal cortisol levels for pregnancy. Close surveillance of patients is required for worsening hypertension, hypokalemia, and potential adrenal insufficiency.3 Although no fetal adverse events from metyrapone have been reported, the medication does cross the placenta, leading to the potential for fetal adrenal insufficiency, and long-term effects are unknown.3 CONCLUSION This CASE demonstrates the successful use of metyrapone alone to treat CD throughout pregnancy resulting in the birth of a healthy baby without adrenal insufficiency. These cases are particularly challenging given the lack of FDA-approved therapies and the lack of consensus on directing titration of medications and the duration of therapy. Uncited reference 4., 6.. REFERENCES: 1 T. Brue, V. Amodru, F. Castinetti MANAGEMENT OF ENDOCRINE DISEASE: Management of Cushing's syndrome during pregnancy: solved and unsolved questions Eur J Endocrinol, 178 (6) (2018 Jun), pp. R259-R266, 10.1530/EJE-17-1058 Epub 2018 Mar 9. PMID: 29523633 View PDF CrossRefView Record in ScopusGoogle Scholar 2 F. Caimari, E. Valassi, P. Garbayo, C. Steffensen, A. Santos, R. Corcoy, S.M. Webb Cushing's syndrome and pregnancy outcomes: a systematic review of published cases Endocrine, 55 (2) (2017 Feb), pp. 555-563, 10.1007/s12020-016-1117-0 Epub 2016 Oct 4. PMID: 27704478 View PDF CrossRefView Record in ScopusGoogle Scholar 3 M.D. Bronstein, M.C. Machado, M.C. Fragoso MANAGEMENT OF ENDOCRINE DISEASE: Management of pregnant patients with Cushing's syndrome Eur J Endocrinol, 173 (2) (2015 Aug), pp. R85-91, 10.1530/EJE-14-1130 Epub 2015 Apr 14. PMID: 25872515 View PDF View Record in ScopusGoogle Scholar 4 Azzola A, Eastabrook G, Matsui D, Berberich A, Tirona RG, Gray D, Gallego P, Van Uum S. Adrenal Cushing Syndrome Diagnosed During Pregnancy: Successful Medical Management With Metyrapone. J Endocr Soc. 2020 Nov 5;5(1):bvaa167. doi: 10.1210/jendso/bvaa167. PMID: 33305159; PMCID: PMC7712789. Google Scholar 5 W.H. Lim, D.J. Torpy, W.S. Jeffries The medical management of Cushing's syndrome during pregnancy Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol, 168 (1) (2013 May), pp. 1-6, 10.1016/j.ejogrb.2012.12.015 Epub 2013 Jan 8. PMID: 23305861 ArticleDownload PDFView Record in ScopusGoogle Scholar 6 Gormley MJ, Hadden DR, Kennedy TL, Montgomery DA, Murnaghan GA, Sheridan B. Cushing's syndrome in pregnancy--treatment with metyrapone. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1982 Mar;16(3):283-293. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2265.1982.tb00718.x. PMID: 7074978. Google Scholar 7 M.C. Machado, M.C.B.V. Fragoso, M.D. Bronstein Pregnancy in Patients with Cushing's Syndrome Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am, 47 (2) (2018 Jun), pp. 441-449, 10.1016/j.ecl.2018.02.004 PMID: 29754643 ArticleDownload PDFView Record in ScopusGoogle Scholar 8 Jeffcoate WJ, Rees LH, Tomlin S, Jones AE, Edwards CR, Besser GM. Metyrapone in long-term management of Cushing's disease. Br Med J. 1977 Jul 23;2(6081):215-217. doi: 10.1136/bmj.2.6081.215. PMID: 195666; PMCID: PMC1631369. Google Scholar 9 Stalldecker G, Mallea-Gil MS, Guitelman M, Alfieri A, Ballarino MC, Boero L, Chervin A, Danilowicz K, Diez S, Fainstein-Day P, García-Basavilbaso N, Glerean M, Gollan V, Katz D, Loto MG, Manavela M, Rogozinski AS, Servidio M, Vitale NM. Effects of cabergoline on pregnancy and embryo-fetal development: retrospective study on 103 pregnancies and a review of the literature. Pituitary. 2010 Dec;13(4):345-350. doi: 10.1007/s11102-010-0243-6. PMID: 20676778. Google Scholar Clinical Relevance: Cushing’s Disease (CD) in pregnancy is a rare, but serious, disease that has potential adverse effects on maternal and fetal health. Surgery is considered first line therapy, and there is little consensus on medical treatment of CD in pregnancy. This CASE demonstrates the successful use and titration of metyrapone throughout pregnancy. From https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2376060521001164

The occurrence of different subtypes of endogenous Cushing’s syndrome (CS) in single individuals is extremely rare. We here present the case of a female patient who was successfully cured from adrenal CS 4 years before being diagnosed with Cushing’s disease (CD). The patient was diagnosed at the age of 50 with ACTH-independent CS and a left-sided adrenal adenoma, in January 2015. After adrenalectomy and histopathological confirmation of a cortisol-producing adrenocortical adenoma, biochemical hypercortisolism and clinical symptoms significantly improved. However, starting from 2018, the patient again developed signs and symptoms of recurrent CS. Subsequent biochemical and radiological workup suggested the presence of ACTH-dependent CS along with a pituitary microadenoma. The patient underwent successful transsphenoidal adenomectomy, and both postoperative adrenal insufficiency and histopathological workup confirmed the diagnosis of CD. Exome sequencing excluded a causative germline mutation but showed somatic mutations of the β-catenin protein gene (CTNNB1) in the adrenal adenoma, and of both the ubiquitin specific peptidase 8 (USP8) and the glucocorticoid receptor (NR3C1) genes in the pituitary adenoma. In conclusion, our case illustrates that both ACTH-independent and ACTH-dependent CS may develop in a single individual even without evidence for a common genetic background. Introduction Endogenous Cushing´s syndrome (CS) is a rare disorder with an incidence of 0.2–5.0 per million people per year (1, 2). The predominant subtype (accounting for about 80%) is adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)-dependent CS. The vast majority of this subtype is due to an ACTH-secreting pituitary adenoma [so called Cushing´s disease (CD)], whereas ectopic ACTH-secretion (e.g. through pulmonary carcinoids) is much less common. In contrast, ACTH-independent CS can mainly be attributed to cortisol-producing adrenal adenomas. Adrenocortical carcinomas, uni-/bilateral adrenal hyperplasia, and primary pigmented nodular adrenocortical disease (PPNAD) may account for some of these cases as well (3, 4). Coexistence of different subtypes of endogenous CS in single individuals is even rarer but has been described in few reports. These cases were usually observed in the context of prolonged ACTH stimulation on the adrenal glands, resulting in micronodular or macronodular hyperplasia (5–9). A sequence of CD and PPNAD was also described in presence of Carney complex, a genetic syndrome characterized by the loss of function of the gene encoding for the regulatory subunit type 1α of protein kinase A (PRKAR1A) (10). Moreover, another group reported the case of a patient with Cushing's disease followed by ectopic Cushing's syndrome more than 30 years later (8). To our knowledge, however, we here describe the first case report on a single patient with a cortisol-producing adrenocortical adenoma and subsequent CD. Read the rest of the article at https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fendo.2021.731579/full

This article was originally published here J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2021 Sep 3:dgab659. doi: 10.1210/clinem/dgab659. Online ahead of print. ABSTRACT CONTEXT: Confirming a diagnosis of Cushing’s disease (CD) remains challenging yet is critically important before recommending transsphenoidal surgery for adenoma resection. OBJECTIVE: To describe predictive performance of preoperative biochemical and imaging data relative to post-operative remission and clinical characteristics in patients with presumed CD. DESIGN, SETTING, PATIENTS, INTERVENTIONS: Patients (n=105; 86% female) who underwent surgery from 2007-2020 were classified into 3 groups: Group A (n=84) pathology-proven ACTH adenoma; Group B (n=6) pathology-unproven but with postoperative hypocortisolemia consistent with CD, and Group C (n=15) pathology-unproven, without postoperative hypocortisolemia. Group A+B were combined as Confirmed CD and Group C as Unconfirmed CD. MAIN OUTCOMES: Group A+B was compared to Group C regarding predictive performance of preoperative 24-hour urinary free cortisol (UFC), late night salivary cortisol (LNSC), 1mg dexamethasone suppression test (DST), plasma ACTH, and pituitary MRI. RESULTS: All groups had a similar clinical phenotype. Compared to Group C, Group A+B had higher mean UFC (p<0.001), LNSC(p=0.003), DST(p=0.06), ACTH(p=0.03) and larger MRI-defined lesions (p<0.001). The highest accuracy thresholds were: UFC 72 µg/24hrs; LNSC 0.122 µg/dl, DST 2.70 µg/dl, and ACTH 39.1 pg/ml. Early (3-month) biochemical remission was achieved in 76/105 (72%) patients: 76/90(84%) and 0/15(0%) of Group A+B versus Group C, respectively, p<0.0001. In Group A+B non-remission was strongly associated with adenoma cavernous sinus invasion. CONCLUSIONS: Use of strict biochemical thresholds may help avoid offering transsphenoidal surgery to presumed CD patients with equivocal data and improve surgical remission rates. Patients with Cushingoid phenotype but equivocal biochemical data warrant additional rigorous testing. PMID:34478542 | DOI:10.1210/clinem/dgab659

Christina Tatsi, Maria E. Bompou, Chelsi Flippo, Meg Keil, Prashant Chittiboina, Constantine A. Stratakis First published: 25 August 2021 https://doi.org/10.1111/cen.14560 Abstract Objective Diagnostic workup of Cushing disease (CD) involves imaging evaluation of the pituitary gland, but in many patients no tumour is visualised. The aim of this study is to describe the association of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings with the postoperative course of paediatric and adolescent patients with CD. Patients Patients with a diagnosis of CD at less than 21 years of age with MRI evaluation of the pituitary before first transsphenoidal surgery were included. Measurements Clinical, imaging and biochemical data were analysed. Results One hundred and eighty-six patients with paediatric or adolescent-onset CD were included in the study. Of all patients, 127 (68.3%) had MRI findings consistent with pituitary adenoma, while the remaining had negative or inconclusive MRI. Patients with negative MRI were younger in age and had lower morning cortisol and adrenocorticotropin levels. Of 181 patients with data on postoperative course, patients with negative MRI had higher odds of not achieving remission after the first surgery (odds ratio = 2.6, 95% confidence intervals [CIs] = 1.1–6.0) compared to those with positive MRI. In patients with remission after first transsphenoidal surgery, long-term recurrence risk was not associated with the detection of a pituitary adenoma in the preoperative MRI (hazard risk = 2.1, 95% CI = 0.7–5.8). Conclusions Up to one-third of paediatric and adolescent patients with CD do not have a pituitary tumour visualised in MRI. A negative MRI is associated with higher odds of nonremission after surgery; however, if remission is achieved, long-term risk for recurrence is not associated with the preoperative MRI findings. Full text at https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/cen.14560

Zarina Brady, Aoife Garrahy, Claire Carthy, Michael W. O’Reilly, Christopher J. Thompson, Mark Sherlock, Amar Agha & Mohsen Javadpour BMC Endocrine Disorders volume 21, Article number: 36 (2021) Cite this article 160 Accesses Metricsdetails Abstract Background Transsphenoidal surgery (TSS) to resect an adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)-secreting pituitary adenoma is the first-line treatment for Cushing’s disease (CD), with increasing usage of endoscopic transsphenoidal (ETSS) technique. The aim of this study was to assess remission rates and postoperative complications following ETSS for CD. Methods A retrospective analysis of a prospective single-surgeon database of consecutive patients with CD who underwent ETSS between January 2012–February 2020. Post-operative remission was defined, according to Endocrine Society Guidelines, as a morning serum cortisol < 138 nmol/L within 7 days of surgery, with improvement in clinical features of hypercortisolism. A strict cut-off of < 50 nmol/L at day 3 post-op was also applied, to allow early identification of remission. Results A single surgeon (MJ) performed 43 ETSS in 39 patients. Pre-operative MRI localised an adenoma in 22 (56%) patients; 18 microadenoma and 4 macroadenoma (2 with cavernous sinus invasion). IPSS was carried out in 33 (85%) patients. The remission rates for initial surgery were 87% using standard criteria, 58% using the strict criteria (day 3 cortisol < 50 nmol/L). Three patients had an early repeat ETSS for persistent disease (day 3 cortisol 306-555 nmol/L). When the outcome of repeat early ETSS was included, the remission rate was 92% (36/39) overall. Remission rate was 94% (33/35) when patients with macroadenomas were excluded. There were no cases of CSF leakage, meningitis, vascular injury or visual deterioration. Transient and permanent diabetes insipidus occurred in 33 and 23% following first ETSS, respectively. There was one case of recurrence of CD during the follow-up period of 24 (4–79) months. Conclusion Endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery produces satisfactory remission rates for the primary treatment of CD, with higher remission rates for microadenomas. A longer follow-up period is required to assess recurrence rates. Patients should be counselled regarding risk of postoperative diabetes insipidus. Peer Review reports Introduction With an estimated annual incidence of 1.7 per million [1], Cushing’s disease is rare. Untreated, it poses serious complications including osteoporosis, hypertension, dyslipidaemia, insulin resistance, and hypercoagulability [2] and is associated with a 4.8 fold increase in mortality rate [3,4,5]. Patients who are in remission from CD have a mortality rate which decreases towards (although not reaching) that of the general population [6]. Endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery (ETSS) offers patients potential remission from Cushing’s disease, although long term surveillance is required as recurrence rates range from 5 to 22%% [7,8,9,10,11,12]. Since the first report in 1997 [13], the selective removal of an adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)-secreting pituitary adenoma by endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery has gained popularity as the first line treatment for Cushing’s disease. The primary goal of ETSS treatment in Cushing’s disease is to produce disease remission and to provide long-term control, while minimising complications. Remission rates are dependent on tumour size, preoperative MRI, cavernous sinus invasion, intraoperative visualisation of the tumour and pre- and postoperative ACTH and cortisol concentration [11]. Several studies also report pituitary neurosurgeon experience as a major factor for operative success [2, 14, 15]. Reported remission and recurrence rates after TSS for CD vary widely according to the criteria utilised to define remission [11], and in some studies due to limited patient numbers or short follow-up periods. Indeed, there is no clear consensus on how best to define post-operative remission; an early morning serum cortisol concentration < 138 nmol/L (5μg/dl) within 7 days of TSS is quoted in the 2015 Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline as indicative of remission [16]. A more strict day 3 cut-off of 50 nmol/L (1.8 μg/dl) has been reported in paediatric studies [17], and also included in the Endocrine Society Guideline [16]; the literature suggests this cut-off is associated with remission, and a low recurrence rate of approximately 10% at 10 years [14]. The main objective of this study was to assess the outcomes of endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery for Cushing’s disease in a tertiary pituitary centre; remission using two widely accepted criteria [16], recurrence and postoperative complications. Methods Study design This is a retrospective analysis of a prospectively-maintained database of patients operated on by a single neurosurgeon (MJ), via image-guided endoscopic transsphenoidal approach for Cushing’s disease. Patient data was gathered over 8 years (January 2012 to February 2020) and identified from the institution’s prospective database. Clinical and biochemical data during the follow-up period was reviewed. Approval was granted by the Hospital Audit Committee. Study population Patients were screened for Cushing’s syndrome by the presence of typical clinical features, together with failure to adequately suppress cortisol to < 50 nmol/L following overnight dexamethasone suppression test (ONDST) and/or elevated late night salivary cortisol (LNSF) concentration and/or elevated 24 h urinary free cortisol measurements. As per standard guidelines, Cushing’s disease was diagnosed on the basis of elevated serum ACTH measurements, along with confirmatory hormone responses to peripheral corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) test and inferior petrosal sinus sampling (IPSS). Patients with previous TSS prior to the study period were excluded. Surgical procedure A single neurosurgeon subspecialising in endoscopic pituitary and anterior skull base surgery, M.J, carried out all ETSS surgical procedures. The surgical technique has been described in detail in publications by Cappabianca et al. (1998, 1999) and Jho et al. (1997, 2000, 2001) [13, 18,19,20,21]. In summary, the procedure consists of a binostril endoscopic transsphenoidal approach. A selective adenomectomy was performed on patients with adenomas noted on pre-operative MRI. In cases of negative pre-operative MRI, exploration of the pituitary gland was performed. To confirm the diagnosis of ACTH-secreting adenoma or hyperplasia, all specimens removed underwent histopathological and immunohistochemical staining for pituitary hormones. Postoperative assessment Patients received empiric oral hydrocortisone on day 1 and on the morning of day 2 post-operatively, prior to assessment of 0800 h serum cortisol on day 3. A blood sample for serum cortisol was drawn at 0800 h on the morning of day 3, if clinically stable, prior to administration of hydrocortisone. The Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline define post-operative biochemical remission as morning serum cortisol < 138 nmol/L (5μg/dl) within 7 days postoperatively [16], ‘standard criteria’. In our institution, we also apply a biochemical cut-off of < 50 nmol/L (1.8 μg/dl) at day 3 postoperatively to allow early indication of biochemical remission, ‘strict criteria’. If serum cortisol on day 3 is 50–138 nmol/L, serial measurements are taken daily to determine if cortisol will fall further, and assessment for improvement/resolution of clinical sequalae of hypercortisolaemia made (such as improvement in blood pressure or glycaemic control), before repeat endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery is considered. Transient cranial diabetes insipidus (DI) was defined as the development of hypotonic polyuria postoperatively requiring at least one dose of desmopressin [22], which resolved prior to discharge. Permanent DI was confirmed by water deprivation test according to standard criteria [23]. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) deficiency was defined by low fT4 with either low or inappropriately normal TSH. Growth hormone (GH) deficiency was confirmed using either Insulin Tolerance Test or Glucagon Stimulation Test [24]. Gonadotrophin deficiency was defined in premenopausal women as amenorrhoea with inappropriately low FSH and LH concentration, and in postmenopausal patients as inappropriately low FSH and LH concentration. Recovery of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis was assessed by short synacthen (250 μg) test or insulin tolerance test 3 months post-operatively, and every 3–6 months thereafter in cases of initial fail or borderline result. Patients were assessed annually for recurrence of Cushing’s disease, recurrence was defined by failure to suppress cortisol to < 50 nmol/L following an 1 mg overnight dexamethasone suppression test, an elevated late night salivary cortisol (LNSF) or urinary free cortisol (UFC) in patients no longer taking hydrocortisone. Laboratory analysis Prior to 2019, serum cortisol was measured using a chemiluminescent immunoassay with the Beckman Coulter UniCel Dxl 800. Intra-assay CV for serum cortisol was 8.3, 5 and 4.6% at concentrations of 76, 438 and 865 nmol/L, respectively. From January 2019 onwards, serum cortisol was measured using Elecsys® Cortisol II assay on the Roche Cobas e801; intra-assay precision for serum cortisol was 1.2, 1.1 and 1.6% at concentrations of 31.8, 273 and 788 nmol/L, respectively. Statistics Data are expressed as median (range) and number (%). The Fishers Exact test was used to compare categorical variables between groups. All p-values were considered statistically significant at a level < 0.05. Statistical analysis was performed using GraphPad Prism 8 statistical software (GraphPad Software, La Jolla, California, USA). Results Demographics Forty-three endoscopic transsphenoidal procedures were performed in 39 patients. Demographics are summarised in Table 1. Median (range) age was 37 years (8–75), 30 were female. Median (range) duration of symptoms was 24 months (6–144), 72% (28/39) had hypertension, and 28% (11/39) had type 2 diabetes. Table 1 Summary of demographics and post-operative outcomes Full size table Preoperative imaging and IPSS Pre-operative MRI localised an adenoma in 22 (56%) patients; 18 microadenoma and 4 macroadenoma (2 with cavernous sinus invasion). No adenoma was identified in 17 patients (44%). IPSS was carried out in 33 (85%) patients. Postoperative remission Post-operative outcomes are summarised in Table 1 and Fig. 1. Using standard criteria (0800 h serum cortisol < 138 nmol/l within 7 days of operation and improvement in clinical features of hypercortisolism), postoperative remission rates for initial surgery were 87% (34/39) for the entire group and 89% (31/35) when patients with macroadenomas were excluded, Fig. 1. Three patients had an early repeat ETSS for persistent disease; day 3 serum cortisol ranged from 306 to 555 nmol/L and interval to repeat ETSS from 10 days–3 months. When the outcome of early repeat ETSS was factored in, overall remission rate was 92% (36/39) overall, and 94% (33/35) when patients with macroadenomas were excluded. Fig. 1 Schema of patients who underwent ETSS. *Day 3 cortisol was not measured in one patient due to intercurrent illness requiring treatment with intravenous glucocorticoids Full size image Using strict criteria of early remission (day 3 serum cortisol concentration < 50 nmol/L), postoperative remission rates were 58% (22/38) overall, and 62% (21/34) excluding macroadenomas. Including the three patients with early repeat ETSS, remission rate was 61% (23/38) overall, and 65% excluding macroadenomas (22/34). Day 3 cortisol was not measured in one patient due to intercurrent illness requiring treatment with intravenous glucocorticoids. Eleven patients (28%) had a cortisol measurement between 50 and 138 nmol/L on day 3, seven of whom had received metyrapone therapy prior to ETSS. Six patients had serial measurements of 0800 h cortisol up to a maximum follow-up of 14 days post-op, serum cortisol concentration fell after day 3 in all six patients. Ten (91%) were glucocorticoid-dependent at 3 months based on synacthen/ITT; 0800 h cortisol had fallen to < 50 nmol/L in six patients. Predictors of remission No statistical difference was found in the rates of remission in those patients with or without tumour target on preoperative MRI, using either strict criteria for remission (12/21 target vs 10/17 no target, p > 0.99) or standard criteria (19/22 target vs 15/17 no target, p > 0.99). Similar results were found when the four patients with macroadenoma were excluded. Persistent disease Five patients (13%) had persistent hypercortisolaemia after the initial endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery (Table 2). Three patients underwent a repeat early endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery, Fig. 1. Remission rate after repeat early ETSS was 67% (2/3) using standard criteria, and 33% (1/3), using the strict criteria. Of the patients with persistent disease following repeat ETSS, one received radiosurgery, while the other has been commenced on medical therapy, with a view to refer for radiotherapy. Table 2 Outcome of five patients with persistent hypercortisolaemia after initial ETSS Full size table Postoperative complications The rate of transient diabetes insipidus after first ETSS was 33% (13/39), while permanent diabetes insipidus occurred in 23% (9/39). Postoperatively, there were five cases of new thyroid stimulating hormone deficiency (13%) and four cases of gonadotrophin deficiency (10%) (in pre-menopausal females). There were no cases of postoperative CSF leak, no cases of meningitis and no visual complications. There were no other complications. Recurrence No patients were lost to follow-up. Over a median (range) duration of follow-up of 24 (4–79) months, one patient had recurrence of Cushing’s disease. Pre-operative MRI had shown a macroadenoma; serum cortisol on day 3 after the initial ETSS was 71 nmol/L, which fulfilled standard criteria for remission, but not the more strict criteria. The patient underwent a second ETSS 13 months later. No tumour was visible intra-operatively so no tissue was removed, day 3 serum cortisol concentration was 308 nmol/L and the patient was commenced on a trial of metyrapone. Recovery of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis Recovery of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis occurred in nine patients (27%), at median 13 (3–27) months post-operatively. There was no statistical difference in rates of recovery of HPA axis in patients with day 3 cortisol < 50 nmol/l, and those who only passed standard criteria for remission (< 138 nmol/l) [7/20 (follow-up 25 (3–59) months) versus 2/11 (follow-up 16 (3–79) months) respectively, p = 0.43]. One patient died 5 weeks post-operatively; post-mortem revealed bilateral haemorrhagic adrenal necrosis. Discussion Reported remission rates following ETSS in patients with Cushing’s disease (CD) vary widely, predominantly due to differences in criteria used to define remission [11]. There is no uniform consensus on the criteria used to define ‘remission’, with institutions using a combination of biochemical and clinical criteria; this makes comparing surgical outcome studies challenging. The normal corticotroph cells of the pituitary gland are suppressed due to sustained hypercortisolaemia, therefore following successful removal of the ACTH-secreting adenoma, serum ACTH and cortisol concentrations should fall postoperatively. A morning serum cortisol concentration < 138 nmol/L (5 μg/dl) within 7 days of ETSS is usually indicative of remission, and this biochemical cut-off is quoted in the Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline [16], and many surgical outcome studies [8, 11, 25]. Other studies have applied a more strict serum cortisol cut-off of < 50 nmol/L (1.8 μg/L) at day 3 postoperatively to allow early indication of biochemical remission [10, 11, 26,27,28]; the literature suggests this cutoff is associated with remission, and a low recurrence rate of approximately 10% at 10 years [14]. Our practice is to apply this latter approach; if serum cortisol on day 3 is 50–138 nmol/L, serial measurements are taken daily to determine if cortisol will fall further, and assessment for improvement/resolution of clinical signs of hypercortisolaemia made, before repeat endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery is considered. It is important to ensure that serum cortisol has reached a nadir, before further intervention is considered. In this single-centre single-surgeon study, we report two very different remission rates using these two widely accepted criteria. Our remission rate, including those patients who had an early second ETSS, using standard guidelines, is 92%, on par with other larger studies [7, 8, 11, 25, 29]. When patients with corticotroph macroadenomas were excluded, the remission rate was even higher at 94%. In comparison, when we applied the more strict criteria of day 3 cortisol < 50 nmol/L, the remission rate was considerably lower at 61%. This criteria is in place in our institution so that we can safely identify patients who have early signs of remission to facilitate discharge on day 3 post-operatively; however reporting these rates in isolation lead to a misleadingly low remission rate compared to the more lenient criteria proposed by the Endocrine Society [16]. Evidence has suggested that higher day 3 cortisol concentration is associated with greater risk of recurrence of CD. A recent retrospective cohort analysis of 81 ETSS for CD by Mayberg et al. reported significantly higher recurrence rates in patients with post-operative cortisol nadir between 58 and 149 nmol/L (2.1–5.4 μg/dL) compared with those with cortisol < 55 nmol/L (2 μg/dL) (33% vs 6%, p = 0.01) [30]. Recurrence of CD was low in our series at 3%, and occurred in a patient with a corticotroph macroadenoma, which have been shown to be associated with higher rates of recurrence [31]. On post-operative assessment, serum cortisol fell between the two criteria for remission and if remission was strictly defined as a day 3 cortisol < 50 nmol/L, then this patient had in fact persistent hypercortisolaemia. This case highlights the difficulty when comparing studies reporting ETSS outcomes in CD – the distinction between persistent post-operative hypercortisolism and early recurrence of CD is not always clear-cut, and is dictated by the local protocol. Whilst our recurrence data are encouraging in comparison to other reports on CD recurrence, which published rates of up to 22% [11], longer term follow-up is necessary before recurrence rates can be accurately defined. The criteria used to define long term recurrence of CD also varies widely in the literature; a large systematic review (n = 6400) by Petersenn et al. (2015) reported decreased recurrence rates when studies used UFC with ONDST vs. UFC only, and UFC with morning serum cortisol vs. UFC only [11]. This highlights the requirement for standardization of remission and recurrence criteria, for consistency in clinical practice and in the literature. The post-operative surgical complication rate in our series was very low, with no cases of CSF leak, vascular injury or visual compromise. Other published case series have reported incidence rates for CSF leakage and meningitis of 0–7.2% and 0–7.9% [2, 12, 32, 33] respectively. Postoperative meningitis is strongly associated with CSF leakage [34]. Some studies suggest that the endoscopic approach results in higher rates of carotid artery injury compared with the microscopic approach, which could be attributed to the nature of the extended lateral approach [35]. However, in this series of 43 ETSS, we report no cases of surgical related carotid artery injury, similar to other studies reporting 0% serious morbidity or mortality due to carotid artery injury [33, 36]. Finally, postoperative visual disturbance is a major concern, as it can be life changing for patients. Factors linked with visual complications include tumour size, patient age and any pre-existing visual conditions [37,38,39]. Visual deterioration after TSS for Cushing’s disease has been reported to occur in some large case series at rates of 1.9% [32] and 0.86% [12]. There were no cases of postoperative visual disturbance in our series. While the surgical complication rate was low, our endocrine complication rate was higher than that reported in other studies, particularly the rate of DI. Transient DI occurred in 33% of cases, and permanent DI in 23%. These relatively high rates of transient DI may be due to the diagnostic criteria used in our protocol; we defined transient post-operative DI as one episode of hypotonic polyuria in the setting of normal or elevated plasma sodium concentration, requiring at least one dose of desmopressin. In contrast, some studies discount any polyuria which lasts less than 2 days [10], while others require the documentation of hypernatremia for the diagnosis of DI [40]. These more stringent criteria will not capture cases of mild transient DI; therefore it is not surprising that the rates of transient DI reported in a 2018 meta-analysis were lower than that in our study, 11.3% [29]. The rates of permanent DI in our study merits particular attention. TSS for CD has been shown to be associated with a higher risk of post-operative DI [41, 42]. It may be that a more aggressive surgical approach resulted in high remission rates, but at a cost of higher rates of DI. All patients are reviewed post-operatively in the National Pituitary Centre, where there is a low threshold for water deprivation testing and/or 3% saline testing. We did not routinely re-test patients for resolution of DI after their initial water deprivation test at 3 months, and it is possible that some cases subsequently resolved after 3 months [41, 43]. Regardless, the rate reported in this study is significant, and emphasises the importance of counselling the patient about the risk of DI long-term. Strengths and limitations The reporting of two remission rates based on widely accepted criteria is a strength of this study, and allows for direct comparison of our outcomes with other studies. All ETSS were performed by a single pituitary surgeon; while this removes bias from surgeon experience, the disadvantage of this is that the sample size is relatively low. Furthermore, because we included patients who were recently operated on to maximise numbers for analysis of surgical complications, the follow-up period is relatively short. A longer follow-up is required to comment accurately on recurrence of CD. We did not have full ascertainment of longitudinal post-operative data including dexamethasone suppression tests, and this has highlighted the need for protocolised follow-up to allow for consistency when reporting our results. Conclusion Endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery in patients with Cushing’s disease offers excellent remission rates and low morbidity. Remission rates are much higher when standard criteria [morning serum cortisol < 138 nmol/L (5μg/dl) within 7 days postoperatively] are used compared with day 3 cortisol < 50 nmol/l. Higher remission rates were found for patients with microadenomas. Patients should be counselled regarding risk of post-operative endocrine deficiencies, in particular permanent diabetes insipidus. Longer follow-up is required to accurately assess recurrence rates. Availability of data and materials The data that support the findings of this study are not publicly available due to restrictions by General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Abbreviations TSS: Transsphenoidal surgery ACTH: Adrenocorticotropic hormone CD: Cushing’s disease ETSS: Endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery ONDST: Overnight dexamethasone suppression test LNSF: Late night salivary cortisol CRH: Corticotropin releasing hormone IPSS: Inferior petrosal sinus sampling DI: Diabetes insipidus TSH: Thyroid stimulating hormone GH: Growth hormone UFC: Urinary free cortisol References 1. Lindholm J, Juul S, Jorgensen JO, et al. Incidence and late prognosis of cushing's syndrome: a population-based study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2001;86(1):117–23. CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar 2. Broersen LHA, van Haalen FM, Biermasz NR, et al. 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First published:03 May 2020 Read the entire article at https://doi.org/10.1002/alr.22540 Potential conflict of interest: None disclosed. Presented at the 65th Annual Meeting of the American Rhinologic Society, on September 14, 2019, in New Orleans, LA. Abstract Background Endoscopic transsphenoidal surgery (ETS) for the resection of pituitary adenoma has become more common throughout the past decade. Although most patients have a short postoperative hospitalization, others require a more prolonged stay. We aimed to identify predictors for prolonged hospitalization in the setting of ETS for pituitary adenomas. Methods A retrospective chart review as performed on 658 patients undergoing ETS for pituitary adenoma at a single tertiary care academic center from 2005 to 2019. Length of stay (LoS) was defined as date of surgery to date of discharge. Patients with LoS in the top 10th percentile (prolonged LoS [PLS] >4 days, N = 72) were compared with the remainder (standard LoS [SLS], N = 586). Results The average age was 54 years and 52.5% were male. The mean LoS was 2.1 days vs 7.5 days (SLS vs PLS). On univariate analysis, atrial fibrillation (p = 0.002), hypertension (p = 0.033), partial tumor resection (p < 0.001), apoplexy (p = 0.020), intraoperative cerebrospinal fluid (ioCSF) leak (p = 0.001), nasoseptal flap (p = 0.049), postoperative diabetes insipidus (DI) (p = 0.010), and readmission within 30 days (p = 0.025) were significantly associated with PLS. Preoperative continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) (odds ratio, 15.144; 95% confidence interval, 2.596‐88.346; p = 0.003) and presence of an ioCSF leak (OR, 10.362; 95% CI, 2.143‐50.104; p = 0.004) remained significant on multivariable analysis. Conclusion For patients undergoing ETS for pituitary adenomas, an ioCSF leak or preoperative use of CPAP predicted PLS. Additional common reasons for PLS included postoperative CSF leak (10 of 72), management of DI or hypopituitarism (15 of 72), or reoperation due to surgical or medical complications (14 of 72). From https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/alr.22540?af=R